Lecture – 6

The Mauryan Empire was the first largest empires that ever established on Indian soil till 324 B.C. The Mauryan Empire was spread from the valley of the Oxus (present Amu River) to the delta of Kaveri.

Chandragupta Maurya

• Chandragupta Maurya had ruled during the period of 324-300 B.C.
• The Buddhist literature, the ‘Mahavamsa’ and ‘Dipavamsa’ give a detail account of Chandragupta Maurya.
• Chandragupta Maurya has been described as a descendant of the Kshatriya clan of the Moriyasbranch of Sakyas. They lived in Pipphalivana, in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
• The ‘Mudrarakshasa’ is a play written by Vishakhadatta, referred Chandragupta as ‘Vrishala’ and ‘Kulahina,’ which means a person of humble origin.
• According to Parisistha-parvam (the Jain text), Chandragupta with the help of Chanakya, defeated the Nanda king and captured his empire and became the great ruler of Magadha empire.
• The Junagarh rock inscription describes that a dam for irrigation was constructed on the SudarshanaLake by Pushyagupta, a provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya.
• Inscriptions of Ashoka found at Girnarhills in Junagarh district in Gujarat and at Sopara, in Thane district in Maharashtra reflect that these areas were under the rule of Mauryan Empire.
• The Jain tradition confirms that in his old age, Chandragupta abdicated the throne and retired to Shravanabelagolain Karnataka with his teacher Bhadrabahu (a Jain ascetic).

Bindusara

• Bindusara extended the kingdom further and conquered the south as far as Mysore.
• Bindusar asked Antiochus I of Syria to send some sweet wine, dried figs, and a Sophist.  Antiocus I sent wine and figs but politely replied that Greek philosophers are not for sale.
• Bindusar patronized Ajivikus.

 Asoka

• According to the Buddhist tradition, Asoka usurped the throne alter killing his 99 brothers and spared Tissa, the youngest one.
• Radhagupta a Minister of Bindusar helped him in fratricidal struggle.  Under Asoka. the Mauryan Empire reached its climax.
• For the first time, the whole of the subcontinent, leaving out the extreme south, was under imperial control.
• Asoka (ought the Kalinga war in 261 BC in the 9th years of his coronation.  The king was moved by massacre in this  war and therefore abandoned the policy of physical occupation in favour of policy of cultural conquest.
• In oilier words, Bherighosha  was replaced by Dhammaghosha.

• Asoka was not an extreme pacifist.
• He did not pursue the policy of peace for sake of peace under all conditions.
• Thus he retained Kalinga after its conquest and incorporated it into his empire.
• Asoka sent missionaries to the kingdoms of the Cholas and the Pandyas, and five States ruled by Greek kings.
• We also know that he sent missionaries to Ceylon and Suvarnabhumi (Burma) and also parts of South East Asia.

economic activities.

• The state controlled almost all economic activities.
• Tax  collected  from peasants varied  from  ¼  to  1/6  of  the
• The state also provided irrigation facilities and charged water-tax.
• Tolls  were  also  levied  on commodities brought to town for sale and they were collected at gate.
• The state enjoyed monopoly in mining,  sale   of   liquor, manufacture of arms etc
• The main industries during this period were textile, mining and metallurgy, ship-building, jewelry making, metal working, pot making, etc.
• The industries were organized in various guilds. Jesthakawas the chief of a guild.
• The guilds were powerful institutions. It gave craftsmen great support and protection.
• The guilds settled the disputes of their members. A few guilds issued their own coins.
• The Sanchi Stupa inscription mentions that one of the carved gateways was donated by the guilds of ivory workers.

The Mauryan Administration

• The Mauryan government was a centralised bureaucracy of which the nucleus was the king.
• The Mantri Parishad The king was assisted by Mantri Parishad, whose members included –
• The Yuvaraj, the crown prince
• The Purohita, the chief priest
• The Senapati.
• the commander-in-chief of the army  a few other ministers.

• The king was the head of the state. The king used to issue ordinances known as ‘Sasana.’ He possessed the judicial, the legislative, and the executive powers.
• Sasanasare available in the form of ‘Edicts of Ashoka’.
• The Mauryas king had to follow the law of the country given by law givers and had to govern according to the customs of the land. He could not do whatever he liked.
• The king was assisted in administration by ‘Mantriparishad,’ which was a Council of Ministers.
• Adhyakshas(superintendent) were officers who performed a special task.
• Kautilya mentioned a large number of Adhyakshas, such as Adhyakshasof gold, store houses, commerce, agriculture, ships, cows, horses, elephants, chariots, infantry, passports etc.
• Yuktawas the officer in-charge of the revenues of the king.
• Rajjukaswere the officers for land measurement and fixing their boundaries. They were also given power to punish the guilty and set free the innocents.
• The Mauryan Empire was divided into provinces. Pradeshikaswas another officer of the Mauryan administration. He was the provincial governor.
• Bindusara appointed his son Ashoka as Governor of the Avanti region and posted him at Ujjain.
• Asoka’s elder brother Susima was posted at Taxila as the Governor of the northwestern provinces.
• The important provinces were directly under Kumaras(princes); however, the total number of provinces is not known.
• Junagarh rock inscription of Rudradaman mentions that Saurashtra (Kathiawar) was governed by Vaisya Pushyagupta at the time of Chandragupta Maurya and by Yavana-raia Tushaspa at the time of Ashoka, both were the provincial governors.
• The Mauryan kingdom was divided into different provinces, which were subdivided into the districts and each district was further divided into groups of five to ten villages.
• The village was the smallest unit of an administration.
• The pradeshikawas the head of district administration. He used to tour the entire district every five years to inspect the administration of areas under his control. A group of officials worked in each district under him.
• Gramikawas the head of the village. He was assisted in village administration by the “village elders”.
• The villages, during this time, enjoyed substantial autonomy. Most of the disputes of the village were settled by Gramikawith the help of village assembly.
• The Arthashastra mentions the highest salary being 48,000 Panasand the lowest 60 Panas. There was a wide range of scales in salary.

City Administration

• The Arthashashtra has a full chapter on the administration of cities.
• The Edicts of Ashoka also describe name of the cities such as Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri, Samapa, Isila, and Kausambi.
• Megasthenese had described the administration of Pataliputra in detail.
• Megasthenese described that Pataliputra city was administered by a city council comprising 30 members. These 30 members were divided into a board of 5 members each.
• Each of the 5 member boards had specific responsibilities towards the administration of the city. For example −
  • One such board was concerned with the industrial and artistic produce. Its duties included fixing of wages, check the adulteration etc.
  • The second board dealt with the affairs of the visitors, especially foreigners who came to Pataliputra.
  • The third board was concerned with the registration of birth and death.
  • The fourth board regulated trade and commerce, kept a vigil on the manufactured goods and sales of commodities.
  • The fifth board was responsible for the supervision of manufacturing of goods.
  • The sixth board collected taxes as per the value of sold goods.
• The tax was normally one-tenth of the sold goods.
• Officers were appointed by the ‘City council’ and accountable for the public welfare such as maintenance and repairs of roads, markets, hospitals, temples, educational institutions, sanitation, water supplies, harbors, etc.
• Nagarakawas the officer in-charge of the city.
• There were numerous departments that regulated and controlled the activities of the state.
• Kautilya mentions several important departments such as accounts, revenue, mines and minerals, chariots, customs, and taxation.

Art & Architecture

• The Mauryas  introduced  stone masonry on large scale.
• Fragments of stone  pillars and slumps indicating the existence of an 80-pillared hall have been discovered at  Kumarhar on outskirts of Patna.
• The pillars represent the Masterpiece of Mauryan
• Each pillar is made of single piece of sandstone.
• only their capitals which are beautiful pieces of sculpture in form of lion or bulls are joined with pillar on the top.
• Single Lion capital at Rampurva and Lauriya Nandangarh.
• Single bull capital at Rampurva.
• Four lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi.
• A carved elephant at Dhauli and engraved elephant at Kalsi.
• The Mauryan artisans also started the practice of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in. the earliest  example are Barabar  caves in
• Stupas were built  throughout the empire  to enshrine the relics  of Buddha. Of these, the most famous are at Sanchi  and Bui hut

• The Decline The Mauryan Empire lasted a little over a century and broke up fifty years after the death of Asoka. Slowly, the various princes of the empire began to break away and set up independent kingdoms.
• In  185 BC. the Mauryan  king  was  overthrown  by Pushyamitra  Shunga, an  ambitious Commander-in-Chief of armed forces.
• He started the Shunga dynasty in Magadha. The Mauryan Empire ushered in a dream that was to survive and echo again and again in centuries to come.
• The invasion of Yavanas from the west was the important event in the history of ancient Indis. It started during the reign of Pushyamitra Sunga.
• Kalidasa also mentions about Vasumitra’s conflict with Yavanas in his book Malavikagnimitram.
• Patanjali had also mentioned this invasion.
• Originally, the word ‘Yavana’ used for Ionian Greeks, but later it came to denote, all people of Greek nationality.
• The Yavanaswere the first ones to establish foreign supremacy on Indian soil.
• The Yavanascame after several central Asian tribes who invaded India and established their political authority.

Indo-Greeks

• The arrival of the Yavanasin India marked by their invasion on the western border of India.
• After Alexander’s death, a large part of his empire came under the rule of his Generals.
• Bactria and Parthia, the adjoining areas of Iran were two main areas under the rule of Alexander’s Generals.
• Diodotus, the governor of Bactria, revolted in about 250 B.C. against the Greeks and proclaimed his independence.
• Euthydemus, Demetrius, Eucratides, and Menander were some important Indo-Greek kings.
• Menander, during the 165-145 B.C., was most illustrious among all the Indo-Greek rulers. His capital was Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Pakistan and he ruled for almost twenty years.
• Greek writers mentioned that Menander was a great ruler and his territory extended from Afghanistan to Uttar Pradesh in east and Gujarat in the west.
• Menander was converted to Buddhism by Buddhist monk Nagasena.
• Menander asked many questions related to philosophy and Buddhism to Nagasena. They were recorded together with Nagasena’s answers in Milindapanhoor the Questions of Milinda.
• The Indo-Greek rulers were the first one in the history of India, whose coins carried the portraits of kings and their names.
• Before the Indo-Greek rulers, the coins in India did not carry names or portraits of the kings and also Indo Greeks were the first rulers who issued gold coins.
• Their coins are known for the depiction of realistic and artistic portraits.

Parthians

• The Parthians were also known as Pahlavas. They were Iranian people. Few facts may be gathered from the coins and inscriptions. However, their history is not clear.
• Vonones was the earliest king of the Parthian dynasty. He captured power in Arachosia and Seistan and adopted the title of “great king of kings”.
• Vonones was succeeded by Spalirises.
• Gondophernes was the greatest of the Parthian rulers. He ruled from A.D. 19 to AD 45.
• Gondophernes became master of the Saka-Pahalva area both in eastern Iran and north-western India for a short period.
• After Gondophernes, the Pahlava rule in India ended. They were replaced by the Kushanas.
• This fact is established by the excavations at Begram in Afghanistan where a large number of coins of Gondophernes was found.

Sakas

• The Indo-Greek rule in north-western India was destroyed by the Sakas.
• The Sakas are also known as the Scythians.
• Sakas or Scythians were nomadic tribes originally from central Asia.
• In about 165 B.C., Sakas were turned out of their original home by the Yueh-chi.
• Yueh-chi later came to be known as Kushanas.
• Sakas were also pushed out of their land and came to India.
• The departure made by the central Asian tribes was the result of the prevailing situations in central Asia and adjoining northwestern China.
• The construction of the Great Wall of China in the 3^rdcentury B.C. left these tribes like Hiung-nu, Wu -sun and Yueh–chi, no option but to move towards south and west.
• The first migrants were Yueh-chi, they displaced Sakas.
• The Sakas invaded Bactria and Parthia and thereafter entered India through the Bolan Pass.
• The Sakas were divided into five branches and established themselves in various parts of north-western and northern India.
  • The first branch settled in Afghanistan.
  • The second branch settled in Punjab with Taxila as its capital.
  • The third branch settled in Mathura.
  • The fourth in Maharashtra and Saurashtra.
  • The fifth in central India with Ujjain as its capital.
• The Sakas ruled in different areas from the 1^stcentury B.C. to about 4^thcentury A.D.
• Therefore, Sakas ruled in different parts of the country. However, the branch of Sakas who ruled in central and western India rose to prominence.
• Nahapana was the most prominent ruler of western India. His reference had been found in various inscriptions in Maharashtra and in the records of the Satavahanas.
• Rudradaman the most illustrious ruler of the central Indian branch. He ruled from (about) A.D. 130 to 150.
• Junagarh rock inscription was erected by Rudradaman.
• Junagarh inscription mentioned that his rule extended over a vast territory including the areas of Gujarat, Sindh, Saurashtra, north Konkan, Malwa, and some parts of Rajasthan.
• Rudradaman undertook the repairs of the Sudarsan lake dam. However, Sudarsan lake dam had been built by the provincial governer of Chandragupta Maurya in Kathiawad when it was damaged by heavy rains.
• Ujjayini was the capital of Rudradaman. It became a centre of culture and education.
• The Saka’s dynasty came to an end with the defeat of the last king in the hands of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty, in about A.D. 390.

• Yueh-chi were a nomadic tribe settled on the north-western border of China as per accounts of the Chinese historians.
• Yueh-chi came in conflict with a neighbouring tribe known as Hiung-nu in the year 165 B.C. In this conflict, Yueh-chi were defeated and forced to move out of their land.
• They could not move towards china in the east because of the China Wall; therefore, they moved toward the west and south.
• In westwards movement, Yueh-chi came in conflict with another tribe called Wu-sun whom Yueh-chi defeated easily. Thereafter, Yueh-chi were divided into two groups as −
  • Little Yueh-chi migrated to Tibet.
  • Great Yueh-chi came to India.
• Yueh-chi met with the Sakas who occupied the territory of Bactria after defeating Wu–sun.
• The Saka’s were defeated and forced to leave their land.
• Saka’s came to India and the Yueh-chi settled down in the land of the Sakas.
• Yueh-chi people, lastly, gave up their nomadic life and adopted an agricultural and a settled way of life.
• The great Yueh-chi branch was divided into five branches.
• Chinese sources explained that the first great Yueh-chi king was Kujula Kadphises. He was also known as Kadphises I. He united all the five groups and established his authority over Afghanistan. He called himself ‘great king’.
• Kujula Kadphises was also known as ‘Dharmathida’and ‘Sachadharmathida’(meaning one who believs in true faith). It is suggested that he was a Buddhist.
• Kadphises I was succeeded by his son Kadphises II. He extended Kushana’s territory upto Punjab, or perhaps even up to the Ganga Yamuna doab.
• Kadphises II issued gold and copper coins. He is referred as the great king and a devotee of Siva.
• On some of Kadphises II’s coins, Siva holding a trident and bull are shown.

Kanishk

• Kadphises II was succeeded by Kanishka. He was most known and greatest of all the Kushana kings.
• Kanishka ascended to throne in A.D. 78 and he founded the Saka era.
• Kaniskha ruled from A.D. 78-101.
• Kanishka’s empire extended from Khotan in the northwest to Benaras in the east and Kashmir in the north to Saurashtra and Malwa in the south.
• Purushapur i.e. modern Peshawar was the capital of the vast empire of Kanishka.
• The Coins of Kanishka had been found from almost all over the above mentioned area.
• Kanishka was a follower of Buddhism. The 4^thBuddhist council was held during Kanishka’s reign.
• Kanishka’s court was adorned by the presence of scholars such as Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka, and Nagarjuna.
• Taxila and Mathura emerged as the great centres of art and culture during the reign of Kanishka.

• His successors were Vasishka, Huvishka, Vasudeva, and some others.
• Vasudeva is a purely Indian name and it suggests the complete Indianisation of Kushana. Vasudeva was a Saiva, though his name is after the Vaishnava deity.
• The decline of Kushana power begins after Vasishka. However, Kushanas continued to rule up to the 4^thcentury A.D. over small kingdom, independently under some sovereign rulers.

Pre question

1. Chandragupta Maurya figured prominently in the book of

(a) Bhasha

(b) shudraka

(c) Vishakha Dutt

(d) Ashvaghosha

2. Which of the following can be compared to prince of machiavelli

(a) Kalidasa- malavikagnimitram

(b) Kautilya -arthasastra

(c) vatsyayana -Kamasutra

(d) Thiruvalluvar –Thirukkural

3. The remains of which ancient city have been found at the kumrahar site

(a) Vaishali

(b) Patliputra

(c) Kapilvastu

(d) Shravasti

4. Rajjuk were

(a) traders in the Chola Kingdom

(b) officers in the mauryan administration

(c) feudal Lords in the Gupta Empire

(d) soldiers in the Saka army

5. In spite of being Buddhist Ashoka did not leave believe in Hinduism validation of this fact is

(a) pilgrims

(b) believes in Moksha

(c) epithet of devanampriya

(d) establishment of veterinary hospital

6. Buddhist council during the reign of Ashoka was held at

(a) Nagda

(b) Patliputra

(c) Samastipur

(d) Rajgriha

7. What were sarthwah

(a) brokers

(b) convoy of murchent

(c) pilgrims officer

(d) Policeman

8. Which one of the following official was not a part of the mauryan administration

(a) AgraHarika

(b) Yukta

(c) pradeshika

(d) Raju

9. Sarnath pillar was built by

(a) Harshvardhan

(b) Ashoka

(c) Gautam Buddha

(d) Kanishka

10. Language used in the inscription of Ashoka is

(a) Sanskrit

(b) prakrit

(c) Pali

(d) Hindi

Mains examination question

1. Write short notes on

(a) Chanakya neeti

(b) Indika

(c) Mudrarakshas

(d) Junagarh rock inscription

2. Mauryan had diplomatic relation with Syriya .name the Syrian ruler .who was ashoka contemporary ?

LECTURE – 7

GUPTA AND POST GUPTA PERIOD

MAINS EXAMINATION QUESTION

1. WRITE SHORT NOTES (50 WORDS)

• Mrichchakatika,
• Nine gems,
• Ajanta  Paintings
• Brahmagupta

2. Discuss in brief about literary and cultural development in gupta period (150 words)

• The Satavahanas, also known as ‘Andhras’ (in Deccan region) covering the parts of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra was a powerful dynasty.
• The Andhraswere ancient people and were mentioned in the AitareyaBrahmana also.
• The Greek writer Pliny mentions that the Andhraswere powerful people who possessed a large number of villages and thirty towns, an army of one lakh infantry, two thousand cavalries and one thousand elephants.
• During the Mauryan age, they were part of the Mauryan Empire, but it appears that immediately after the fall of the dynasty, the Andhras declared themselves free.
• Simuka dynasty ruled from 235 B.C. to 213 B.C. and established Simuka
• Simuka was succeeded by his brother Krishna.
• Satakarni-I was the third king. He made extensive conquests and performed two Ashvamedhayajna. The Nanaghatinscription described his achievements in details. He conquered western Malwa, Vidarbha, and Anupa (Narmada Valley). He is also referred to as the lord of ‘Dakshinapatha.’
• Satakarni-I’s name also occurs on one of the gateways of Sanchistupa because substantial donations were made by the Satavahanas for the renovation and decoration of Sanchi stupas and monasteries.
• Satakarni-II ruled for about 56 years.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni gained Malwa from the Sungas.
• Nahapana had conquered the part of Satavahana territory after Satakarni-II. A large number of coins of Nahapana has been found in Nasik area.
• The Satavahanas became powerful again during the reign of Gautamiputra His achievements are recorded in glowing terms in the Nasik inscription of Queen-mother, GautamiBalasri. This inscription was engraved after his death and in the nineteenth year of the reign of his son and successor Pulmavi II.
• In Nasik inscription, GautamiputraSatakarni has been described as one who destroyed the Sakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas. He overthrew Nahapana and restricted a large number of his silver coins. He also recovered northern Maharashtra, Konkan, Vidarbha, Saurashtra, and Malwa from the Sakas.
• Satakarni dedicated a cave in Nasik in the eighteenth year of his reign and granted some land to ascetics in the twenty-fourth year.
• GautamiputraSatakarni is the first king bearing matronymic and this practice was followed by nearly all his successors.
• Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulmavi in about A.D. 130 and ruled for about twenty-four years.
• The coins and inscription of Pulmavi have been found in Andhra Pradesh. This shows that Andhra was the part of Satavahana Empire in the second century A.D. Perhaps, in order to save the Satavahana Empire from the onslaught of the Sakas, Pulmavi married the daughter of Saka ruler Rudradaman. But this Saka king defeated the next Satavahana ruler twice.
• Sri YajnaSatakarni (A.D. 165-195) was perhaps the last of the great Satavahana rulers. His inscriptions have been found in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.
• From the distribution of his coins, it appears that he ruled over a large kingdom extending from the Bay of Bengal in the east to the Arabian Sea in the west. Thus he regained the land that the Sakas had conquered from his predecessors.
• Maritime trade and activities during his reign had been proved by the depiction of ship with a fish on his coins.
• After centuries of political disintegration an empire came to be established in A.D. 319, under theGuptas. Although the Gupta Empire was not as large as the Maurya Empire, it kept north India politi­cally united for more than a century, from A. D. 335 to 455.
• The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushanas in Uttar Pradesh, and seem to have succeeded them without any wide time-lag.
• The Guptas enjoyed certain material advantages. The centre of their operations lay in the fertile land of Madhyadesha covering Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. They could exploit the iron ores of central India and south Bihar. Further, they took advantage of their proximity to the areas in north India which carried on silk trade with the Byzantine Empire.
• On account of these favourable factors, the Guptas set up their rule over Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Prayag (modern Allahabad), Saket (modern Ayodhya) and Magadha. In course of time this kingdom became an all-India empire.
• The king, Srigupta, has been identified as the first Gupta king mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription.
• Puranas also mentioned that the early Guptas controlled the area along the Ganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Prayag (Allahabad and surrounding region), Saketa (Ayodhya region), and Magadha.
• Ghatottotkacha succeeded his father Srigupta. He was also referred as the Maharaja in Gupta records.

Chandragupta I (A.D. 319-320 to 335):

• The first Gupta ruler of consequence was Chandragupta I, son of Ghatotkacha. By marrying a Lichchhavi Princes Kumaradevi he sought to gain in prestige, though Vaishali does not appear to have been a part of his kingdom. His rule remained confined to Magadha and parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh (Saketa and Prayaga). He took the title of Maharajadhiraja, and his accession in about A.D. 319-20 marked the beginning of Gupta era.

Samudragupta

• Samudragupta succeeded his father Chandragupta-I about A.D. 340. He earned a reputation as one of the greatest kings and conquerors. He was chosen by his father as his successor because of his qualities that would make him into a good king.
• The Allahabad pillar inscription gives a detailed account of the career and personality of Samudragupta.
• Harishena one of the officials composed the inscription and engraved on the Ashoka’s pillar at Allahabad.
• Campaign of southern India was the most important campaign of Samudragupta
• Altogether twelve kings and princes of the south (dakshinapatha) are listed in the inscription.
• During the campaign of southern India, he adopted the policy of first capturing the kings, then releasing them from captivity, and then reinstalling them as kings in their territory. By showing royal mercy, he won their allegiance.
• Samudragupta proceeded for his south Indian campaign, through the eastern and southern parts of Madhyadesha to Orissa and then advanced along the eastern coast and reached Kanchi and beyond and returned to his capital by way of Maharashtra and Khandesh.
• Samudragupta performed ‘Ashvamedhayajna’ after his several conquests and issued gold coins depicting the sacrificial horse and bearing the legend, which conveying that he performed the Ashvamedha
• The Allahabad pillar inscription also lists fourteen kingdoms bordering his kingdom. These rulers paid tribute followed his orders and showed their obedience by attending his court.
• These were located in eastern Rajasthan, northern Madhya Pradesh, Assam, and Nepal. Further, some forest kings (atavika-rajas) are mentioned whom Samudragupta had made his ‘Paricharaka’ (helpers).
• Other political powers listed in the inscription are such as Kushanas, Sakas, Murundas as well as Simhalas (Sri Lanka) and inhabitants of other islands. These rulers sent embassies to Samudragupta’s court.
• Meghavarna, the king of Sri Lanka, sent an embassy to Samudragupta for his permission to build a monastery and a guest house for Buddhist pilgrims at Bodh Gaya.
• Samudragupta was a versatile genius. He was called as ‘Kaviraja’ i.e. the king of poets. He was proficient in war and sastras as well.
• The Allahabad pillar inscription calls him a great musician. This is also confirmed by his lyricist type of coins, which shows him playing veena (lute).
• Samudragupta died in about A.D. 380 and was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II.

Chandragupta II

• Chandragupta II was the son of Samudragupta and Dattadevi and he was chosen by his father as his successor.
• The Gupta Empire reached its highest glory, both in terms of territorial expansion and cultural excellence under Chandragupta II.
• Chandragupta II had inherited a strong and consolidated empire from his father Samudragupta.
• Chandragupta II had established a matrimonial alliance with Vakatakas by marrying his daughter Prabhavatigupta with Rudrasena-II of the Vakataka dynasty.
• Chandragupta-II made an alliance with the Vakatakas before attacking the Sakas so as to be sure of having a friendly power to back him up in Deccan.
• Prabhavatigupta acted as a regent on behalf of her two minor sons after the death of her husband Rudrasena II.
• Chandragupta-II’s victory over the mighty Sakas dynasty was his foremost success. The annexation of Sakas’s kingdom comprising Gujarat and part of Malwa strengthened the Gupta Empire, but also brought it into direct touch with western sea ports. This gave a great motivation to foreign trade and commerce.
• Ujjain, a major centre of trade, religion, and culture became the second capital of the Gupta Empire after the conquest.
• After the victory over Sakas, Chandragupta-II adopted the title of ‘Vikramaditya.’
• Chandragupta-II issued dated silver coins to commemorate his victory over Sakakshatrapas.
• The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription records portray a king named Chandra.
• The king Chandra is generally identified as Chandragupta-II. This would mean his kingdom extended from Bengal to the north-west frontiers.
• Chandragupta-II’s reign is remembered for his patronage of literature and arts and for the high standard of artistic and cultural life.
• Kalidas, the great Sanskrit poet was a member of Chandragupta-II’s court.
• Fa-Hien, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim visited India between A.D. 405 and A.D. 411. He visited for collecting Buddhist manuscripts and text and studying at Indian monasteries.

Kumaragupta-I

• Chandragupta-II died about A.D. 413. His son Kumaragupta became the next king.
• Kumaragupta ruled for more than forty years. He performed an Ashvamedhasacrifice; though his military achievements are not known.
• Kumaragupta issued Ashvamedhatype of coins like his grandfather, Samudragupta.
• The epigraphic records show that he organised the administration of vast empire and maintained its peace, prosperity, and security for a long period of forty years.
• The Gupta Empire was challenged by the Pushyamitras at the end of Kumaragupta’s reign.
• Pushyamitras were living on the banks of the Narmada.
• Skandagupta was the son of Kumaragupta-I.

Skandagupta

• Kumaragupta-I died in A.D. 455. His son Skandagupta became the next king.
• Skandagupta’s reign seems to have been full of wars. He struggled with his brother Purugupta.
• Hunas were the greatest enemies of Gupta’s empire during this period.
• Hunas were a ferocious barbarian horde. They lived in central Asia.
• Skandagupta successfully defeated the Hunas. So they did not dare to disturb the Gupta Empire for half a century. Though they continue to disconcert Persia during this period.
• The important event of Skandagupta’s reign was the restoration and repair of the dam on SudarsanaLake after 8 hundred years of construction. It was built during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign.
• SudarsanaLake was also repaired previously during the reign of Sakakshatrapa Rudradaman I.

Revenue Administration:

Land revenue was the main source of the state’s income besides the fines.

• In Samudragupta’s time we hear of an officer Gopasramin working as Akshapataladhikrita whose duty was to enter numerous matters in the accounts registers, recover royal dues, to check embezzlement and recover fines.
• Another prominent high official was Pustapala (record-keeper).
• The Gupta kings maintained a regular department for the proper survey and measurement of land as well as for the collection of land revenue.

Provinces, Districts and Villages:

• The provinces or divisions called bhuktis were governed by Uparikas directly appointed by the kings.
• The province was often divided into districts known as Vishayas which were ruled by Kumaramatyas, Ayuktas or Vishayapatis. His appointment was made by the provincial governors.
• Gupta inscriptions from Bengal shows that the Municipal board – Adhisthanadhikarana associated with itself representation from major local communities: the Nagarasresthi (guild president), the chief merchant Sarthavaha, the chief artisan – PrathamaKulika and the chief scribe – PrathamaKayastha. Besides them were the Pustapalas – officials whose work was to manage and keep records.
• The lowest unit of administration was the village. In eastern India, the vishayas were divided into vithis, which again was divided into villages. The Gramapati or Gramadhyaksha was the village head­man.
• The Gupta inscriptions from north Bengal show that there were other units higher than the villages such as the Rural Board – Asthakuladhikarana which comprised of the village elders – Mahattaras and also included the village headman – Gramika and the householders Kutumbins.
• With the absence of any close supervision of the state, village affairs were now managed by the leading local elements. No land transactions could be affected without their consent. The village disputes were also settled by these bodies with the help of Grama-vriddhas or Mahattaras (village elders). The town administration was carried on by the mayor of the city called Purapala.

• Gupta period was considered as the golden phase of Indian literature.
• The wonderful literature was produced in prose, poetry, drama, and grammar. It is the noticeable product of the system of education and learning.
• The Puranaspreserved the traditions, legends, moral codes, religious, and philosophical principles. They are eighteen in number.
• The Smritisare metrical texts containing the rules and regulations and laws for the guidance and governance of the society.
• Smritisare based on dharmasutras and grihyasutras of Vedic literature. They are written in verse.
• Some additions and alterations have been done to make Smritissuitable to the changing conditions of society.
• The commentaries on the Smritiswere written after the Gupta period.
• The compilation of Ramayanaand Mahabharata was completed by the 4^thcentury A.D.
• Kalidas has written the best works in poetry, drama as well as in prose. His kavyassuch as Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa, and Kumarasambhava, and dramas such as Abhijnashakuntalam are the best literary works of this time and it is considered as the best even today. These works have been translated into many languages.
• Kalidas adorned the court of Chandragupta-II, the king of Ujjayini, who was popular as Vikramaditya.

• These all inscriptions (listed above) consist most of the characteristics features of Sanskrit kavya.
• The most notable in the field of drama were Bhasa, Sudraka, Kalidas, and Bhavabhuti.
• Mrichchakatika(written by Sudraka), is considered one of the best plays of ancient India. This play is about the love of a Brahman with the beautiful daughter of a courtesan.
• Vishakhadatta had written two plays, namely Mudrarakshasaand Devichandraguptam.
• Famous plays written by Kalidas are Malavikagnimitram, Abhijnanashakuntalam,and Vikramorvasiyam.
• Uttararama-charitaand Malati-Madhava were written by Bhavabhuti.
• Panchatantra, written by Vishnu Sharma, is one of the most famous works of this period. It was translated into Persian and Arabic in the 8^thcentury A.D. and has been translated into almost all European languages by the time.
• The popular work Hitopadesais based on the Panchatantra.
• Harshacharitais the biography of Harsha written by Banabhatta. It is an outstanding work of the period.
• The development of Sanskrit grammar (based on Panini and Patanjali) was also seen in this period.
• Bhartrihari composed three Shatakas. He had also written a commentary on the Mahabhasyaof Patanjali.
• The compilation of the Amarakoshaby Amarasimha is memorable work of this period. Amarasimha was a popular personality in the court of Chandragupta II.
• The Prakrit was popular language of the Gupta period (as it was earlier).
• The SvetambaraJain cannot have been written in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit.

• Aryabhata, a great mathematics, wrote the book ‘Aryabhatiya’ in Kusumpura (Pataliputra) at the age of 23 years.
• Aryabhatiyais divided into four parts and the most important features of Aryabhata’s mathematical system was the unique system of notation. It is based on the decimal place-value system unknown to other ancient people.
• Aryabhata explained various principals of geometry, an area of a triangle, the area of circle and the theorem relating to rectangles.
• Brahmaguptawas also a famous mathematician. He wrote ‘Brahmsiddhanta’ in A.D. 628. He developed rules for operating with negative qualities and with zero. He began to apply Algebra to astronomical problems.
• Jyotisawas an ancient term used for astronomy and astrology. Varahamihira wrote ‘Panchasiddhantika in A.D. 505. He was á popular person in the court of Chandragupta II.
• Panchasiddhantikaconsisted five works (siddhantas), which is popular as Paitamaha, Romaka, Paulisa, Vasishtha, and Surya.
• The Suryasiddhantais the most important and complete work on the astronomy of the period.
• Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita. This is considered as an encyclopedic work on astrology.
• Varahamihira’s son, Prithuyashas also wrote a book on astronomy in about A.D. 600, named as Harashatpanchashika.
• Hastayurvedais a guide book that describes (elaborately) the ‘animal diseases’ particularly about elephants.
• Asvasastrawas written by sage Salihotra. It is a treatise on the horse.
• Chemistry was another science that developed along with the medicine that helped in the development of metallurgy.
• Nagarjuna the great Mahayanistwas also genus in chemistry.
• The Mehrauli iron pillar is a living memorial of this period. It portrays the progress in metallurgy achieved 1,500 years ago by the Indians. It has been surviving without rusting since its establishment (i.e. for over 1,500 years).

Foreign Accounts

• Fa-Hien, the Chinese pilgrim with four other monks, came to India during the reign of Chandragupta II.
• Fa-Hien came to India through land route via central Asia and Kashmir and traveled across north India.
• Fa-Hien stayed three years at Patliputra and here he learned the Sanskrit language.
• Fa-Hien was interested only in Buddhism; however, he gave an idea of general peace and welfare during Gupta’s court.
• Hiuen-Tsang, another Chinese traveler, visited India during Harsha’s reign. He spent thirteen years in India, in which eight years, he stayed in Harsha’s kingdom.
• Hiuen-Tsang had studied at Nalanda University. He visited various Indian kingdoms and mentioned about their condition. His book “Si-yu-ki”is a precious source of ancient Indian history.
• Hiuen-Tsang was honoured by Harshavardhana of Kanauj and Bhaskarvarma of Assam.

• I-tsing, a Chinese traveler, came to India viasea route. He spent many years in Sumatra and Sri Vijaya and learned Buddhism.
• I-tsing stayed at Nalanda for ten years and studied and translated Buddhist texts.
• I-tsing compiled a Sanskrit Chinese dictionary and translated a number of Sanskrit texts.
• I-tsing mentioned about Buddhist Religion as Practised in India. He gave a detailed account of Buddhism and general condition of India and Malaya.
• After the Gupta period, India was divided into different small and medium kingdoms.

North India

• There were four major kingdoms in north India between the period in which the Guptas declines and the rise of Harsha (i.e. in the beginning of 7^thcentury), namely −
  • Guptas of Magadha;
  • Maukharis of Kanauj;
  • Maitrakas of Valabhi (Saurashtra); and
  • Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar.
• These four kingdoms (enlisted above) were competed with each other to succeed to the past glory of the Guptas.
• The Guptasof Magadha were different from the main imperial Gupta dynasty. It was a minor dynasty of Magadha. It could not be determined whether they were connected in any way with the imperial Guptas. But some of the kings of this Gupta family were very powerful and ruled up to as far as the Brahmaputra River.
• The Maukharisoccupied the region of western Uttar Pradesh around Kanauj. They captured a part of Magadha.
• Isanavarman and his son Sarvavarman were powerful Maukhari kings. They have adopted the title of “Maharajadhiraja.”
• Isanavarman successfully restrained the Hunas who had once again attempted to move towards the heart of India.
• The Maitrakaclan founded a kingdom in Saurashtra in the west. They made their capital at Valabhi.
• Valabhi developed as a seat of learning and culture along with a center of trade and commerce.
• The Maitrakas survived the longest and ruled until the middle of the 8^thcentury; however, they were defeated by the Arabs.
• The Pushyabhutisof Thaneswar was the fourth Kingdom. It was destined to play a distinguished part in Indian history.
• The Pushyabhuti family became known after the Huna invasion. Prabhakarvardhana became a powerful king of this kingdom. He played an important role in the history of India.
• Prabhakarvardhana assumed the title of ‘ParamabhattarakaMaharajadhiraja.’
• Banabhatta described him as “a lion to the Huna deer, a burning fever to the king of Sindhu, a troubler of sleep of Gurjara king, a bilious fever to that scent-elephant, the lord of Gandhara, a destroyer of the skill of the Latas, an axe to the creeper, which is the goddess of fortune of Malwa.“
• Prabhakarvardhana’s sovereign kingdom was extended to the whole of Punjab in the north-west and part of Malwa in the south.
• There was a Huna invasion in the last phase of Prabhakarvardhana’s rule.
• Prabhakarvardhana had two sons, Rajyavardhana and Harshavardhana and a daughter Rajyasri. He married his daughter to the Maukhari king Grahavarman.
• Prabhakaravardhana had been rapidly extending the boundaries of his kingdom towards the west and south. During this period, two powerful kingdoms were established in Bengal and Assam.
• About A.D. 525, one independent kingdom was established in Bengal.
• Gauda kingdom comprises western and northern parts of Bengal. They declared their independence; however, the Maukharis defeated them.
• Sasankabecame the king of Gauda kingdom about half a century later. He founded his capital at Karnasuvarna (near Murshidabad). He occupied the whole of Bengal. He captured Orissa and then advanced towards Kanauj in the west against the Maukharis.
• The Maukhari king Grahavarman was married to Rajyasri, daughter of Prabhakaravardhana. This marriage alliance strengthened the position of the two families.
• Sasanka (Gauda), with the help of Malwa king, invaded Kanauj after the death of Prabhakaravardhana. The King Grahavarman of Kanauj, was killed and the queen Rajyasri was thrown into prison.
• Hearing the news of Kanauj defeat, Rajyavardhana (brother of Harsha) started campaign to suppress the kings of Gauda and Malwa. But he was deceitfully killed by Sasanka.

PRE EXAM QUESTION

1. What was the name of the Lichchavi princess who Chandragupta-I married?
   [A] Kumaradevi
   [B] Kubernaga
   [C] DhruvaDevi
   [D] Vasu Devi

2. In context of Gupta empire during whose time period was the Iron Pillar in Delhi erected?
   [A] Samudragupta
   [B] Chandragupta II
   [C] Kumargupta I
   [D] Skandgupta

3. Which of the following are the famous temples of Gupta empire?
   [A]MukundDarra Temple, Kota
   [B]Dasavtar Temple, Jhansi
   [C]Vishnu Temple, Tigawa
   [D]All of the above

4. Who among the following Gupta emperor made Ujjain as his second capital?

[A]Samudragupta

[B]Chandragupta II

[C]Kumargupta I

[D]Skandgupta

5. Which of the following inscriptions mentions Chandragupta Vikramaditya’s authority over

North-Western India?

[A]Mehrauli iron pillar inscription

[B]Beirut inscription

[C]Junagarh inscription

[D]Allahbad pillar inscription

6. Which of the following is / are the 9 gems of Chandragupta Vikramaditya?

[A]Amarsimha

[B]Harisena

[C]Kahapanaka

[D]All of the above

7. The gold coins issued during the reign of Chandragupta Vikramaditya were known as__?

[A]Dinara

[B]Couch

[C]Archer

[D]Chhatra

8. Who defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III and annexed his kingdom?

[A]Ramagupta

[B]Chandragupta II

[C]Kumargupta I

[D]Samudragupta

9. Who defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III and annexed his kingdom?

[A]Ramagupta

[B]Chandragupta II

[C]Kumargupta I

[D]Samudragupta

10. Who granted permission to Buddhist king of Ceylon Meghavarman to build a monastic at Bodh

Gaya?

[A]Samudragupta

[B]Kumargupta

[C]Skandgupta

[D]Chandragupta II

11. The Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II was succeeded by whom?

[A]Kumargupta I

[B]Skandgupta

[C]Buddhagupta

[D]Vishnugupta

Mains examination question

1. write short notes on (50 words)

• Alberuni
• Qutub-ud-din-Aibek,
• Tolkappiyam,
• Silappathikaram

HISTORY

LECTURE – 8

• The period between the 1st century B.C. to the end of 2nd century A.D. in Southern India is known as Sangam Period. It has been named after the Sangam academies during that period.
• According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in the ancient South India popularly called sangam. These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
• The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available.
• The Second Sangamwas held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
• The Third Sangamat Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are a useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.

Sangam Literature:

• The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and two epics named – Silappathikaram and Manimekalai .
• Tolkappiyam was authored by Tolkappiyar, it is considered the earliest of Tamil literary work. Though it is a work on Tamil grammar but it also provides insights on the political and socio-economic conditions of the time.
• Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
• The Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai  and  Malaipadukadam .
• Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works about ethics and morals. The most important among these works is Tirukkuralauthored by Thiruvalluvar, the tamil great poet and philosopher.
• The two epics Silappathikaram is written by Elango Adigal and Manimekalai by SittalaiSattanar. They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity.
• Other Sourcesthat give details about the Sangam Period are –
• the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mentioning about commercial trade contacts between the West and South India.
• Also, the Ashokan inscriptions mention about the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers to the south of Mauryanempire.
• Another inscription, Hathigumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also has mention of Tamil kingdoms.

Political History of Sangam Period:

• The area lying to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra is called South India. During the Sangam Age, it was ruled by three dynasties-the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. The main source of information about these kingdoms is traced from the literary references of Sangam Period.

Cheras:

• The Cheras had their rule over major parts of modern Kerala/ malabar areas.
• The capital of Cheras was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri.
• They had the palmyra flowers as their garland.
• The insignia of Cheras is the” bow and arrow”.
• The Pugalur inscription of  the 1st century AD has reference to three generations of Chera rulers.
• The important ruler of Cheras was Senguttuvan who belonged to 2nd century A.D.
• His military achievements have been chronicled in epic Silapathikaram, with details about his expedition to the Himalayas where he defeated many north Indian rulers.
• Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu.

.

Cholas:

• The Chola kingdom in the Sangam period extended from Northern Tamil Nadu to southern Andhra Pradesh.
• Their capital was firstly at Uraiyur and later shifted to Puhar(Tanjore).
• King Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas.
• The insignia of Cholas was “tiger”.
• Pattinappalai portrays his life and military conquests.
• Many Sangam Poems mention the Battle of Venni where he defeated the confederacy of Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains.
• He also fought at Vahaipparandalai in which nine enemy chieftains submitted before him.
• Hence, Karikala’s military achievements made him the overlord of the whole Tamil country.
• Therefore, Trade and commerce flourished during his reign.
• He also built irrigation tanks near river Kaveri to provide water for reclaimed land from forest for cultivation.

Pandyas:

• The Pandyas ruled over the present day southern Tamil Nadu.
• Their capital was Madurai.
• Their insignia was the “carp”.
• King Neduncheliyans also known as AryappadaiKadanthaNeduncheliyan. He ordered the execution of Kovalan. The curse of Kovalan’s wife-Kannagi burnt and destroyed Madurai.
• Maduraikkanji was written by MangudiMaruthanar which describes the socio-economic condition of the flourishing seaport of Korkai.

Sangam Polity and administration:

• During the Sangam period hereditary monarchy was the form of government. Each of the dynasties of Sangam age had a royal emblem – tiger for the Cholas, carp for the Pandyas, and bow for the Cheras.
• The king was assisted by a wide body of officials who were categorised into five councils.
• They were ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), envoys (thuthar), military commanders (senapathi), and spies (orrar).
• The military administration was efficiently organized with each ruler a regular army was associated.
• The chief source of state’s income was Land revenue while a custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade.
• Major source of fulfilling the royal treasury was the booty captured in wars.
• The roads and highways were maintained and guarded to prevent robbery and smuggling.

Position of Women during Sangam Age:.

• There were women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar who flourished and contributed to Tamil literature.
• Love marriage was a common practice and women were allowed to choose their life partners.
• But, life of widows was miserable.
• There is also a mention about the practice of Sati being prevalent in the higher strata of society.

Economy of the Sangam Age:

• Agriculture was the chief occupation where rice was the most common crop.
• The handicraft included weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
• These were in great demand of all above products in the internal and external trade as this was at its peak during the Sangam period.
• A high expertise was attained in spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes. Various poems mention of cotton clothes as thin as a cloud of steam or like a slough of snake. These were in great demand in the western world especially for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
• The port city of Puhar became an important place of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port containing  precious goods.
• Other significant ports of commercial activity were Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.

• Many gold and silver coins that were issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero have been found in all parts of Tamil Nadu indicating flourishing trade.
• Major exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics and spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric along with ivory products, pearls and precious stones.
• Major imports for the traders were horses, gold, and sweet wine.

Northern India: Age of three Empires

• A number of powerful Empires arose in northern India and the Deccan between 750-1000 AD. These werePalas, which dominated eastern India till  the middle  of 11 th century, the Pratiharas. which dominated eastern India and the upper Gangetic valley and the Rastrakutas, which dominated Deccan.

The Palas

• Gopala founded the Pala Empire in 750 AD. His son Dharmapala succeeded him.
• Dharmpala revived Nalanda University, which had been famous all over the eastern world.  He also founded the Vikramshila University
• The Pratiharas
• The Pratiharas are also called Gurjara-Pratiharas probably because they originated from Gujrata of southwest Rajasthan.
• Bhoja was the greatest ruler of this dynasty.
• He was a devotee of Vishnu  and adopted the title of ‘Adivaraha’. He is sometimes called MihirBhoja to distinguish him from BhojaParmara of Ujjain

The Rashtrakutas

• Dantidurga who fixed his capital at Manyakhet or Malkhed near modern Sholapur founded the kingdom.
• The greatestRastrakuta rulers were Govinda 111 and Amoghvarsha.  Amoghavarsha ruled for 68 years but by temperament he preferred persuit of religion and literature to war. He was himself an author and wrote “KaviRajamarga’ the earliest  Kannada Book on poetics.
• The famous rock cut temple of Shiva at Ellora was built by one of the Rastrakuta kings  Krishna I in 9th

Chalukyas (543-757 AD)

• They established their capital  at Vatapi (Badami) in district of Bijapur in Karnataka.
• Pulakesin II was able to check Harsha’s design to conquer Deccan.
• Aihole Inscription is a eulogy written by his court poet Ravikirti.
• The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited his kingdom.
• Pallava ruler Narsimhavarman I invaded the Chalukya kingdom, killedPulakesin II and captured Badami.

Chalukya Art

• They developed the Deccan or Vesara style in the building of’ structural temples, which reached culmination, however, only under the Rashtrakutas   and  the Hoyasalas
• They perfected the art of stone building, that is, stones finely joined without mortar.
• Under than auspices the Buddhists,  Jainas and  Brahmins competed  with each other in building cave temples.
• Thought the cave frescoes began earlier,  some of the  finest specimens  belonged  to  the Chalukyas.
• The murals that were executed on the walls dealt with not only religious themes but also with secular ones.

• Hieun Tsang The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, Hieun Tsang visited  India dining Harsha’s reign.  He  has left  a lengthy  account  of  his  travels Hieun Tsang noticed that Buddhism was not  as popular in all pans of India as  he  had thought it would be.
• But in eastern India, it was still popular.  Nalanda  University  was still  a famous centre of  He  also recorded the existence of a rigid caste system and talks about the  existence of  many  subcastes He   also takes  note  of  many outcastes and untouchables, who were segregated and  not  allowed to mix with the people of the higher varnasand had  habitations marked with a distinguishing  sign.  Chola art
• In the temples, the Vimana or the  tall   pyramidal   tower dominates the whole structure of the shrine  and imparts an extraordinary dignity to it.
• Gopuram and Garbhagriha are the other  two  important structures.
• The best specimens are the temples of Vijayala-Choleswara. theNageswara temple, the Koranganatha  temple and the Muvarakovintha temple.

• Hoyasala art
• Temples usually stand on a high platform.
• The minute carving of the Hoyasala temples is their  most attractive  feature, achieving the effect of Sandalwood and ivory carving and reproducing the  same infinite variety of ornamental decoration.
• The temple at Hoyasaleshvaraat Halebid  is  the  greatest achievement of Hoysala art.

Art and  Architecture

• Gandhara Art
• It Clearly exhibits the influence of Greek and Roman art.
• However, patrons of this art were not  Greeks  but  Sakas  and Kushanas.
• The school specialized in Buddha and Bodhisattva images, stupas and monasteries.
• Built mostly of blue schist stone.
• Buddhas of this school are gentle. graceful   and  (Lacking the spirituality of those of the Gupta period).
• The chief characteristics arc  the realistic representation of human figures,  distinguished muscles of the   body  and   transparent garments.

Gupta Art

• Achieved the highest level of perfection.
• the art was sensitive, secular and anthropomorphic.
• Gupta temple was not excavated from rock, it was an independent structure built of dressed stone blocks.
• Dasavatara temple at Deogarh is a beautiful example of Gupta architecture.
• Two of the best examples of Gupta images are the standing Buddhas from Mathura. the rock sculpture showing the Varahaavatara of Vishnu  in the Udayagiri  cave  represents the vigour of which  the  art was capable.

Mathura Art

• Buddhas of Gandhara were copied here but in a more refined way.
• The art represents an important formative stage in the history of Indian art.  The great majority  of creation consisted  of  nude  seminude figures of  female Yakshinis or Apsoras in  erotic pose.
• The images exhibited not only form, masculinity and energetic body but also grace and religious feeling.
• The attempt to display spiritual strength  by halo  began  with Muthura School.
• The forms of Brahmanical deities became crystallized at Mathura for the first time.

Rajput Clans

• The four clans, namely −
  • Pratiharas, (or Pariharas),
  • Chauhans (or Chahamanas),
  • Solankis (or Chaulukyas), and
  • Pawars (or Paramaras).

• These four agni-kulaclans established their power in western India and parts of central India.
  • The Pariharas ruled in the region of Kanauj;
  • The Chauhans were strong in central Rajasthan;
  • Solanki power rose in the region of Kathiawar and the surrounding areas, and
  • The Pawars established themselves in the region of Malwa with their capital at Dhar near Indore.

• Besides, some other minor rulers also became powerful and gradually built small kingdoms in various parts of northern India, for example −
  • Nepal,
  • Kamarupa (in Assam),
  • Kashmir, and
  • Utkala (in Orissa).
• Many of the hill states of the Punjab also developed during the early phase of medieval period; such as −
  • Champaka (Chamba),
  • Durgara (Jammu), and
  • Kuluta (Kulu) in Himachal.\

• Some other worth noting kingdoms of central India (contemporary to the Rajputs) were −
  • The Chandelles in Bundelkhand,
  • The Guhilas in Mewar to the south of the Chauhans, and
  • The Tomaras in Haryana and the Delhi region.
• Over a period of time, the Chauhansdefeated the Tomarasand annexed their kingdom.

v  Prithviraj III, the prince of Chauhan dynasty, was the most powerful king of that period in northern India. Chandbardai, the Hindi poet of his (Prithviraj’s) court had written the famous poem ‘Prithviraja-raso.’

Mahmud of Ghazni

• Ghazni was a small kingdom in Afghanistan, which was founded by a Turkish nobleman in the tenth century. One of its successors, namely Mahmud wanted to make Ghazni into a big and powerful kingdom; therefore, he decided to conquer a part of Central Asia.
• In order to make his large and powerful army, Mahmud had needed a huge property; hence, he decided to attack India to rob Indian wealth (to accomplish his great ambition).
• The first raid of Mahmud began in A.D. 1,000. In a short period of twenty-five years, Mahmud made seventeen raids. Meanwhile, he fought battles in Central Asia and in Afghanistan as well.
• Between A.D. 1,010 and 1025, Mahmud attacked only on the temple towns in northern India, as he had heard that there were much gold and jewelry kept in the big temples in India.
• One of these attacks, which is frequently mentioned while discussing Medieval History, was the destruction of the Somnath temple located in western India.
• In 1,030, Mahmud died and the people of northern India get relieved. Though Mahmud was destructor for the Indians, but in his own country, he was a builder of a beautiful mosque and a large library.
• Mahmud was the patron of the famous Persian poet, Firdausi, who wrote the epic poem ‘Shah Namah.’
• Mahmud sent the Central Asian scholar Alberuni to India, who lived here for many years and had written his experience, describing the country and the condition of the people.

Muhammad Ghori

• Muhammad Ghori was the ruler of the Ghor kingdom, a small kingdom of Afghanistan. He was the supreme ruler of Ghurid Empire.
• Ghori was more ambitious than Mahmud, as he was not only interested in robbing wealth of India, but also intended in conquering northern India and adding it to his kingdom.
• Since Punjab had already been a part of the Ghazni kingdom; therefore, it made easier to Ghori to plan India campaign.
• Muhammad’s most important campaign in India was against the Chauhan ruler, Prithviraj III. In 1191, Prithviraj defeated Ghori; this battle is popularly known as the ‘first battle of Tarain.’
• In 1192, Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj in the second battle of Tarin. The defeat of Prithviraj opened the Delhi area to Muhammad and he began to establish his power.
• In 1206, Ghori was murdered and his kingdom in northern India was left in the control of his general Qutb-ud-din Aibak.

• The Slave Sultans (AD. 1206-1290)

• Mamlukswere the earliest rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. They are also known as the Slave Kings because many of them were either slaves or were the sons of slaves and became Sultans.
• The first of the slave kings was Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who was the general of Muhammad Ghori. After the death of Ghori, Qutb-ud-din stayed in India and established his kingdom.
• The ruler of Ghazni tried to annex the territory held by Qutb-ud-din, but he failed. When lltutmish succeeded Qutbud-din as Sultan, a separate kingdom was established in the northern India, namely Delhi Sultanate.
• Over a period of time, the Sultans of Delhi extended their control up to Bengal in the east and Sind in the west.
• During the Sultanate period, there was the problem of the local Indian rulers who had been conquered. Sultans had taken territories of some rulers and some others were allowed to keep it.
• The rulers who were allowed to keep their territories paid a sum of money as a tribute and agreed to help the Sultan with military support when required.
• Sultanate had also problems from the north-west, for example, the rulers of Afghanistan were quiet, but the Mongol people of Central Asia, led by Chenghiz Khan, made fresh conquests.
• The Sultan Iltutmishhad faced the administrative problems. However, when he died, his daughter Raziya became the sultan and she had to face the problems.
• After Iltutmish, the next important Sultans was Balban, a strong and iron-willed Sultan. He was more successful in solving the problems than his predecessors. He defended the Sultanate from the attacks of the Mongols.
• Balban’s success was integrated into his strategic administrative policy. He successfully changed the organization of the army and curbed the revolt of the nobles.
• Balban encouraged people to do the ‘sijdah’ in his presence. Sijdahmeans, people had to kneel and touch the ground with their forehead in salutation to him (Balban).
• Sijdah, horrified the orthodox Muslims. According to Muslims belief, “all men are equal, and therefore, no one should do the sijdahbefore anyone else except God.”

The Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)

• The Khilji Dynasty was the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate of India. Towards the end of Slave Dynasty it became weaker because of internal rebellions.
• Jalal-ud-din Khilji killed MuizuddinQaiqabad, the last operational sultan of Slave Dynasty and founded the Khilji Dynasty in 1290 AD. This dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1290 AD to 1320 AD.
• The advent of the Khalji dynasty marked the zenith of Muslim imperialism in India.The founder of the Khalji dynasty was JalaluddinKhalji. He was seventy years old when he came to power. He was generous and lenient. Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban was allowed to remain the governor of Kara. His leniency was misunderstood as weakness. When Chhajju revolted, it was suppressed but he was pardoned.
• When the thugs (robbers) looted the country, they were allowed to go after a severe warning. In 1292 when Malik Chhajju revolted for the second time, he was replaced by his son-in-law, AlauddinKhalji. In 1296 AlauddinKhalji took an expedition to Devagiri and returned to Kara. During the reception there, AlauddinKhalji treacherously murdered his father-in-law JalaluddinKhalji and usurped the throne of Delhi.

Rulers Khilji Dynasty

The rulers of Khilji Dynasty who ruled the Delhi Sultanate were :

• Jalal-ud-din Khilji (1290 AD-1296 AD):Jalal-ud-din Khilji was the first sultan of Khilji Dynasty. He ruled the dynasty from 1290 AD to 1296 AD. He was very liberal towards Hindus and it was not fully accepted by the nobles. His mild policies failed to control the unfaithful nobles. In 1296 AD, he was killed by his nephew Ala-ud-din Khilji while he went to welcome his victorious nephew after the conquest of Devagiri.
• Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296 AD-1316 AD):Ala-ud-din Khilji was the most powerful ruler of Khilji Dynasty. He killed Jalal-ud-din Khilji and became the sultan of Delhi in 1296 AD. He expanded his territory to a larger area including most of the India and part of Pakistan and Afghanistan. (refer individual section for detail.)
• Reforms of AlauddinKhalji: AlauddinKhalji maintained a large permanent standing army and paid them in cash from the royal treasury. According the Ferishta, he recruited 4,75,000cavalrymen. He introduced the system of dagh(branding of horses) and prepared huliya (descriptive list of soldiers). In order to ensure maximum efficiency, a strict review of army from time to time was carried out. The introduction of paying salaries in cash to the soldiers led to price regulations popularly called as Market Reforms. AlauddinKhalji established four separate markets in Delhi, one for grain; another for cloth, sugar, dried fruits, butter and oil; a third for horses, slaves and cattle; and a fourth for miscellaneous commodities.
• Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna-i- Mandi. The supply of grain was ensured by holding stocks in government store-houses. Regulations were issued to fix the price of all commodities. A separate department called DiwaniRiyasat was created under an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat. Every merchant was registered under the Market department. There were secret agents called munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding the functioning of these markets. The Sultan also sent slave boys to buy various commodities to check prices. Violation of regulations was severely punished. Harsh punishment was given if any shopkeeper charged a higher price, or tried to cheat by using false weights and measures. Even during the famine the same price was maintained. We are not sure whether the market regulations in Delhi were also applied in the provincial capitals and towns.
• Apart from market reforms, AlauddinKhalji took important steps in the land revenue administration. He was the first Sultan of Delhi who ordered for the measurement of land. Even the big landlords could not escape from paying land tax. Land revenue was collected in cash in order to enable the Sultan to pay the soldiers in cash. His land revenue reforms provided a basis for the future reforms of Sher Shah and Akbar.
• Military Campaigns: AlauddinKhalji sent his army six times against the Mongols. The first two was successful. But the third Mongol invader Khwaja came up to Delhi but they were prevented from entering into the capital city. The next three Mongol invasions were also dealt with severely. Thousands of Mongols were killed. The northwestern frontier was fortified and Gazi Malik was appointed to as the Warden of Marches to protect the frontier.
• The military conquests of AlauddinKhalji include his expedition against Gujarat, Mewar and the Deccan. He sent Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to capture Gujarat in 1299. The king and his daughter escaped while the queen was caught and sent to Delhi. Kafur, an eunuch, was also taken to Delhi and later he was made the Malik Naib – military commander. Then in 1301, Alauddin marched against Ranthampur and after a three month’s siege it fell. The Rajput women committed jauhar or self-immolation.Alauddin next turned against Chittor. It was the powerful state in Rajasthan. The siege lasted for several months.
• In 1303 Alauddin stormed the Chittor fort. Raja Ratan Singh and his soldiers fought valiantly but submitted. The Rajput women including Rani Padminiper formed jauhar. This Padmini episode was graphically mentioned in the book Padmavathwritten by Jayasi. AlauddinKhalji’s greatest achievement was the conquest of Deccan and the far south. This region was ruled by four important dynasties – Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of Madurai. In Alauddin sent Malik Kafur against the ruler of Devagiri, Ramachandra Deva, who submitted and paid rich tributes.
• In 1309 Malik Kafur launched his campaign against Warangal. Its ruler Pratabarudra Deva was defeated and enormous booty was collected from him. Malik Kafur’s next target was the Hoysala ruler ViraBallala III. He was defeated and a vast quantity of booty was seized and sent to Delhi. Kafur next marched against the Pandyas. Vira Pandya fled the capital Madurai and Kafur seized enormous wealth from the Pandya kingdom and returned to Delhi. AlauddinKhalji died in 1316. Although the Sultan was illiterate, he patronized poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan. He also built a famous gateway known as Alai Darwaza and constructed a new capital at Siri. Mubarak Shah and Khusru Shah were the successors of AlauddinKhalji. Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur, killed the Sultan Khusru Shah and ascended the throne of Delhi under the title of GhiyasuddinTughlaq in 1320.
• Ala-ud-din Khilji is also known for defeating Mongols in multiple instances. In 1297-98 AD Mongol army invaded his territory but the sultan army led by Zafar Khan and Ulugh Khan defeated the Mongol invasion at Jalandhar. Mongol again attacked in 1299 AD with a larger army. Sultan army had a convincing victory and defeated the Mongol.
• South Indian Campaign: Ala-ud-din started his military campaign in Southern India. Malik Kafur was appointed as the military commander and he carried out the attack to the Deccan. In 1305 AD, Malik Kafur attacked King Ram Chandra of Devgiri and made him a tribute paying ruler under the protection of Sultan. King Ram Chandra paid huge indemnity to Delhi Sultan.
• In 1309 AD, Malik Kafur occupied Warangal of Kakatiya Dynasty. King Prataprudra signed a treaty with Delhi Sultan and Ala-ud-din Khilji took hold of famous Koh-i-Noor diamond with other wealth.
• In 1310 AD, Ala-ud-din sent Malik Kafur to attack against Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra. Sultan army defeated ViraBallala III of Dwarasamudra and the king paid huge amount of indemnity to Delhi Sultan and accept his protection and overlordship.
• In 1311 AD, Malik Kafur attacked King Vir Pandya of Pandya Kingdom in Madurai of Tamil Nadu. King Vir Pandya fled away from the capital and Sultan army occupied the capital of Pandya Kingdom.
• Administration: Ala-ud-din Khilji was an efficient administrator and known for his strict and harsh policies. He introduced a strict Price Control measure and cut all unnecessary expenditure. He controlled the market price of the commodities. He increased the tax of agriculture and introduced a strict monitoring system to prevent bribes. He controlled the demand and supply by introducing godowns to store the surplus grain and make available at the time of scarcity.
• Note: AlauddinKhilji wanted to be a world conqueror. In his coins he depicted himself as Sikaiidar-i Sam, meaning Second Alexander. So he is known as Second Alexander of India.

PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

HISTORY

LECTURE – 8

1. Why did Alauddin Khilji introduce market reforms?

A: To maintain large army

B: To increase tax

C: To provide easy living for the people

D: Better administration

2. The Barids of Delhi Sultanate was –

A: Police Officer

B: The Spy

C: Accountant

D: Priest

3. During which reign Al Beruni came to India?

A: Mahmud of Ghazni

B: Balban

C: Iltutmish

D: FirozShaTughlaq

4. Who was the first Muslim ruler of India?

A: Qutubuddin Aibek

B: Iltutmish

C: NasiruddinMehmud

D: Muhammad Ghori

5. The first and last woman ruler of India was –

A: Riziya Sultana

B: Noor Jahan

C: MumtajBibi

D: Shaibabibi

6. Who was the famous General of Alauddin Khilji?

A: Chengiz Khan

B: Zafar Ali

C: Malik Kafur

D: Ghazi Malik

7. The Monuments has a dome and said to be one of the largest in the world is –

A: Tomb of Akbar

B: Jama Masjid

C: GolGumbaz, Bijapur

D: TajMahal

8. Mohammad bin Tughlaq

A: introduced measures to regulate markets

B: introduced monetary reforms

C: Increase taxes in Doab Region

D: Conquer Deccan

9. Who was the first Muslim invade India?

A: Muhammad bin Quasim

B: Ghazni from Mahmud

C: Timur Long

D: Muhammad Gori

10. Which Sultan is known as the ‘Mixture of Opposites’?

A: AlauddinKhilji

B: Qutub-ud-din-Aibek

C: Muhammad bin Tughlaq

D: Mahmud of Ghazni

Tughlaq to lodi

The Tughlaq Dynasty, a North Indian Dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1320 AD to 1414 AD. In 1320 AD, Khusro Khan, a Hindu convert killed the last ruler of Khilji Dynasty Qutbud din Mubarak Shah and thus ended the Khilji Dynasty. Khusro Khan ruled for a short period of time.

• Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was a governor from the time of Ala-ud-din Khilji. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq sent his son Juna Khan to fight against Warangal. He defeated Pratabarudra and returned with rich booty. Ghiyasuddin laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad near Delhi.
• Ulugh Khan was said to have treacherously killed his father and ascended the throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325.

Some of the important rulers of Tughlaq Dynasty were :

• Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320 to 1325 AD): He was the first ruler of TughlaqDynasty.His childhood name was Ghazi Malik. He ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1320 AD to 1325 AD. He built the fort Tughlaqabad in the southern part of Delhi. (for detail about Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaqrefer his individual section)
• Muhammad-bin Tughlaq (1325 to 1351 AD):He succeeded his father Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq and became the sultan of Delhi in 1325 AD. He is known as one of the most controversial rulers of India. He undertook many administrative reforms but most of them failed due to his lack of judgement. In Indian history he is referred as the wisest fool king.

Muhammad bin tughlaq’s Reforms:- He tried to introduce many administrative reforms. But most of these fails due to his impatience and lack of judgement.

• Transfer of Capital (1327): Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to make Devagiri (also known as Deogir) his second capital so that he might be able to control South India better.
• In 1327 he ordered the whole population of Delhi and royal household including ministries, scholars, poets, musicians to move to the new capital. It is believed that he wished to shift the capital as a safeguard measure from Mongol Invasion.
• During the journey from Delhi to Daulatabad many people died on the way. By the time people reached Daulatabad, Muhammad changed his mind and decided to abandon the new capital and move to his old capital Delhi. Many people died in the movement. A severe plague broke and half of the army died in the epidemic. The distance between these two places was more than 1500 kilometres. Many people died during the rigorous journey in the summer. After two years, the Sultan abandoned Daulatabad and asked them to return to Delhi. The plan of shifting capital completely failed.

• Introduction of Token Currency(1330): In 1329-30 he introduced a token currency. There was a shortage of silver throughout the world in the fourteenth century. Kublai Khan issued paper money in China. In the same manner, He issued copper coins at par with the value of the silver tanka coins. He might have been successful if he could prevent people from forging the new coins. He was not able to to do so and soon the new coins began to be greatly devalued in markets. The goldsmiths began to forge the token coins on a large scale. Soon the new coins were not accepted in the markets. Finally, he stopped the circulation of token currency and promised to exchange silver coins for the copper coins. Many people exchanged the new coins but the treasury became empty. According the Barani, the heap of copper coins remained lying on roadside in Tughlaqabad.

• Taxation in Doab: The failure of these two experiments affected the prestige of the Sultan and enormous money was wasted. In order to overcome financial difficulties, he increased the tax on the alluvial lands between the Ganga and the Yamuna valley. During his reign the empire faced a severe famine and worse measures were taken by the king. People abandoned their home involved in robbery and theft, thousands perished. They fled from the villages but Muhammad bin Tughlaq took harsh measures to capture and punish them. The revolts were crushed. Governor of each province were ordered to submit their book of accounts to Delhi.

• Rebellions: The latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign witnessed a spate of rebellions by the nobles and provincial governors. The rebellion of Hasan Shah resulted in the establishment of the Madurai Sultanate. In 1336 the Vijayanagar kingdom was founded. In 1347 Bhamini kingdom was established. The governors of Oudh, Multan and Sind revolted against the authority of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. In Gujarat Taghi rose in revolt against the Sultan who spent nearly three years in chasing him. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s health became worse and he died in 1351.

• Agricultural Reforms: However, the Sultan realized later that adequate relief measures and the promotion of agriculture were the real solution to the problem. He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were given to the farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation. A separate department for agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi was established. Model farm under the state was created in an area of 64 square miles for which the government spent seventy lakh tankas. He spent huge amount of money but the scheme didn’t succeed due to corruption of officers and other factors. This experiment was further continued by Firoz Tughlaq.

• Military Campaigns and Territory Expansion: After becoming the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to expand his territory and occupied Kalanaur and Peshawar in the north west. He desired to expand his borders in southern India and re-occupied the states those were initially conquered by Malik Kafur during the reign of Ala-ud-din Khilji. He occupied Andhra, Karnataka, Maharashtra, larger parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala and thus he conquered major part of South India and annexed it to the Delhi Sultanate.

• Diplomatic Relation: Muhammad maintained a good relation with the other world leaders. He sent ambassadors to China and other places.

• Downfall of Tughlaq Dynasty: Towards the end of his reign people started to revolt because of dictatorial policies. There were revolts in many provinces. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq died in 1351 AD and after his death Firuz Shah Tughlaq succeeded him and ascended the throne of Delhi Sultanate.

• Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351 to 1388 AD): He succeeded Muhammad-bin Tughlaq and became the sultan of Delhi in 1351 AD.
• He ruled the dynasty for about 37 years. He founded Firuzabad, the new capital at Delhi. He is mostly known as religious man.
• He was a kind and merciful mainly to Muslims and paid attention for the happiness of his subjects. He reduced the tax burden and relaxed the strict policies.
• Although he was kind to Muslims, he was strict towards non Muslims. He strictly enforced the Jiziya tax to all non-Muslims. He destroyed many Hindu Temples. He was not a powerful military commander to fight back the external attacks. Firuz Shah died in 1388 AD. After his death the dynasty gradually became weaker and finally it was overthrown by Sayyid Dynasty.

Timur’s Invasion: Mahmud Shah Tughluq was the last ruler of Tughlaq Dynasty. During his reign Timur invaded India and did a massive massacre in Delhi. (for detail about Timur’s Invasion, see the individual section)

Syyid dynasty

Khizr-Khan , a lieutenant of Timur, was a Sayyid and so his dynasty is called Sayyid Dynasty. Khizr Khan ruled till 1421, but his whole reign was marked by utter chaos and disorder. He was succeeded, after his death, by his son Mubarak Shah (1421-1434).

Lodi Dynasty was the last dynasty of Delhi Sultanate and ruled from 1451 AD to 1526 AD. The Lodi Dynasty was of Afghan origin and Bahlul Lodi was the founder of Lodi Dynasty. In 1451 AD, Alam Shah, the last ruler of Sayyid Dynasty voluntarily abandoned the throne of Delhi Sultanate in favour of Bahlul Lodi. In 1526 AD, the Lodi Dynasty came to end after the first Battle of Panipat and marked the beginning of Mughal Empire.

Rulers of Lodi Dynasty

• BahlolLodhi (1451-88 AD): Bahlul Lodi was the first ruler of the Lodi Dynasty. He ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 AD to 1489 AD. (for detail see the Bahlul Lodi individual section)

• SikandarLodhi (1489-1517 AD): After the death of Bahlul Lodi, his son Sikandar Lodi succeeded him and ascended the throne of Delhi Sultanate in 1489 AD. He ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1489 AD to 1517 AD. Sikandar Lodi was a good and caring ruler for his Muslim subjects but he was extremely strict and harsh for Hindus. He founded Agra in 1504 AD as his second capital after Delhi.
• Administration: Sikandar Lodi was a good and caring ruler for his Muslim subjects but he was extremely strict and harsh for Hindus. He installed Persian language as the official language. Sikandar enforced the Jiziya tax to non-Muslims. He destroyed Hindu Temples and erected Mosques.

• Sikandar Lodi wanted to overpower the Gwalior Fort and attacked 5 times but he never succeeded.He was a staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic. He lacked religious tolerance. In the name of religion, he perpetuated untold cruelties on the Hindus. He took a keen interest in the development of agriculture. He introduced the Gaz-i-Sikandari(Sikandar’s yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields.

• Successor: Sikandar Lodi died in 1517 AD. Ibrahim Lodi , the youngest son of Sikandar Lodi succeeded his father in 1517 AD and ruled the Delhi Sultanate till 1526 AD.

• Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26 AD): Ibrahim Lodi , the youngest son of Sikandar Lodi succeeded his father in 1517 AD and ruled the Delhi Sultanate till 1526 AD. He was the last Sultan of Lodi Dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate. In 1526 AD, the Mughal Emperor Babur defeated him in the first Battle of Panipat and established the Mughal Empire. Ibrahim Lodi died in the battle. This battle is considered as ending of Lodi Dynasty and beginning Mughal Empire in India. (for detail see the Ibrahim Lodiindividual section)
• During the period of Lodi Dynasty, the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gamalanded in India in 1498 AD. (for detail see the Vasco da Gama individual section)

Vijayanagara Kingdom

• Vijayanagara Kingdom was founded by two brothers Hariharaand Bukka.
• In 1336, Harihara and Bukka conquered the territory of the Hoysala(i.e. modern Mysore State) and proclaimed themselves as an Independent ruler of the Vijayanagara Kingdom.
• Harihara and Bukka made Hastinavati(modern Hampi) their capital.
• Apart from these big kingdoms, there were many other smaller kingdoms, especially along the eastern coast (from Orissa to Tamil Nadu). These smaller kingdoms were being frequently attacked by either the Bahmanis or the Vijayanagara rulers.
• In 1370, Vijayanagara conquered Madurai. It was also active on the west coast. Meanwhile, the Bahmani kingdom was engaged in fighting against its northern neighbors, namely the kingdoms of Gujarat and Malwa.
• All these kingdoms of the subcontinent became powerful, because of the handsome income that came through the land revenue and trade.
• Gujarat and Bengal received big profits from overseas trade especially with western Asia, East Africa, South-East Asia, and China.
• The Bahmani and Vijaynagara kingdoms also took part in the overseas trade.
• Besides trade, local culture, literature in the regional language, architecture, paintings, and new religious ideas were developed in these kingdoms
• After the arrival of Islam in India, some changes can be seen in religious practice as well. Religious ideas (especially Hindu and Muslim religions) were exchanged. However, in context of religious trends, the following two movements are the most noticeable −
  • Sufi Movement and
  • Bhakti Movement

Sufi Movement

• During the eleventh century, some of the Muslims (especially who had come from Persia and nearby regions) were fundamentally Sufis. They settled in different parts of India and soon gathered plenty of Indian followers.
• The Sufi ideology promoted love and devotion as means of coming nearer to God. The true God’s devotees bound to came close (both) to God and to one’s fellow men. Secondly, Sufis suggested that prayers, fasts, and rituals were not as important as the true love of God.
• The Sufis, as they were promoting true love to God and fellow men, they were pretty flexible and tolerant for all other religions and sects, and advocated that the paths to God can be many.
• The Sufis, further, promoted respect for all human beings. This was the reason that the orthodox Ulemadid not approve of the ideology of Sufis and said that Sufi teachings were not in agreement with orthodox Islam.
• Many of the Hindus also respected the Sufi saints and became followers. However, the Sufis did not attempt to deceive or convert Hindus to Islam, but rather advised Hindus to be better Hindus by loving the one true God.
• One of the most popular Sufi saints was Muin-ud-din Chishti. He lived most of his life in the city of Ajmer (where he died in 1236).
• Muin-ud-din Chishtiemphasized on the devotional music and said that the devotional music is one of the ways to go closer to the God.
• The Ulemadid not approve of linking music with religion or God. However, Chishti’s followers held gatherings at the places where some of the finest music could be heard.
• The qawwaliwas a familiar form of singing at the sufi Some songs sung in Hindi were also popular.
• Baba Farid who lived at Ajodhan (now in Pakistan) was also a popular Sufi saint.
• Nizam-ud-din Auliyawas the Sufi saint who was loved by both the Sultans and by the public. His center was in the neighborhood of Delhi.
• Nizam-ud-din Auliya was a brave and honest man and he advocated with his free mind. If Nizam-ud-din Auliya did not like any action of even the Sultan, he said so and was not afraid as were so many other people.

The Bhakti Movement

• During the seventh century, Bhakti movement evolved in the south part of the country (especially in the Tamil speaking regions). Over a period of time, it spread in all the directions.
• The alvarsand the nayannars of the Tamil devotional cult had started the tradition of preaching the idea of bhakti through hymns and stories.
• Most of the saints of Bhakti movement were from the non-Brahman families.
• Like Sufi ideology, the bhakti ideology also taught that the relationship between man and God was based on love, and worshipping God with devotion was better than merely performing any number of religious ceremonies. Bhakti Saints emphasized on the tolerance among men and religions.
• Chaitanya, the devotee of Krishna, was a religious teacher who preached in Bengal. He composed many hymns dedicated to Krishna.
• Chaitanya had traveled different parts of the country and gathered a group of his followers. At the end of his life, he settled at Puri in Orissa.
• In Maharashtra, the Bhakti ideology was preached by Jnaneshvara. Jnaneshvara had translated Gita in Marathi.
• Namadevaand in a later period, Tukaram, were the pretty popular saints of Bhakti movement.
• Kabir, who was basically a weaver, was also a Bhakti saint (in Banaras). The dohas(or couplets), which Kabir composed and preached to his followers are still recited.

Taxation

• The fiscal policy of Turkish Sultans of India was modeled on the theory of finances of the “Hanafi School” of Sunni Jurists”.
  Only four different sources of revenue were sanctioned by the Quran – Kharaj, Khams, Jaziya and Zakat, but the Sultanate of Delhi charged about two dozen extra taxes. Following were the few important taxes:
• Zakat:The religious taxes were collectively known as the Zakat. This was realized from well to do Muslims amounting at the rate of 1/40th of one’s property.
• Jizya:It was levied on non-Muslims in return for the protection of life and property and exemption from military services. Women, children, indigent and the Brahmanas were exempted from it.
• Kharaj:It was the land tax realized from non-Muslims.
• Khums:It was the tax on mines, treasure trove and share in war booty.
• Sharaf:It was the irrigation tax charged at the rate of 1/10th of the produce. This was imposed by FiruzTughlaq.
• Abwafs:It was the extra taxes like housing tax, grazing tax, etc.

culture

• Kabir realized that religious differences do not matter, for what really matters is that everyone should love God. God has many names (e.g. Ram, Rahim, etc.). Therefore, he tried to make a bridge between the two religions, namely Hinduism and Islam.
• The followers of Kabir had formed a separate group, popular as Kabirpanthis. Later, Surdas and Dadu continued the bhakti tradition.
• The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam.
  According to the theological basis, Muslims believe that Islamic society and government should be organised on the basis of divine injunctions of the Quran. The saying and doings of Prophet Muhammad, collectively known as hadis, began to be supplemented with the above.
  • The ulema (Muslim theologians) gave various religons on the basis of the Quran and the hadis to meet different situations and problems, which are together known as the Sharia (Islamic Law).
  • According to secular basis, Zawabit (rules and regulations framed by the Sultans) were also used for a smooth and efficient running of the administration.
  • The doctrine of farr or farrah (supernatural effulgence or radiance) was first enunciated in the Shah Namah by firdausi, according to whom the God endows the rulers with farr, which symbolises the divine favour.
  • Among the Delhi Sultans, Balban was the first to exhibit his awareness of the doctrine when he remarked that ‘the king’s heart is the mirror of the divine attributer’.
  • Amir Khusrau observed that Kaiqubad was endowed with the farr.
  • The Sultans considered themselves as representatives of the Caliph. They included the name of the Caliph in the khutba or prayer and inscribed it on their coins.
  • Although Balban called himself the shadow of God, he continued to practice of including the name of Caliph in the khutba and coins.
  • Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and FirozTughlaq obtained mansur or letter of permission from the Caliph.
  • The office of the Sultan was the most important in the administrative system. He was the ultimate authority for the military, legal and political activities.
  • Deputy Sultan or Naib:Appointment to this post was generally made only when a ruler was weak or minor. The Naib enjoyed practically all the powers of the Sultan on his behalf and exercised a general control over the various departments of the governments.
  • Wazir:He was the head of the finance department and next to the Sultan was the highest dignitary of the state. But if there was a Naib Sultan, he ranked above the Wazir. The department of the Wazir was called Diwan-i-Wazarat. He had a number of powerful assistants, three among whom deserve particular mention-NaibWazir (chief’s deputy), Mushrif-i-Mumalik (Accountant General) and MustaufiMumalik (Auditor General).
  • Ariz-i-Mumalik:He was the chief of military staff and was responsible for the organisation, maintenance and control over the armed forces of the state. His department was called Diwan-i-Arz. He was not the ex-officio commander-in-chief of the forces.
  • Sadr-us-Sudur:He was the head of the ecclesiastical department. He was in charge of public charities and was also responsible for enforcing conformity to Islam. It was he who made grants in cash or land for the construction and maintenance of mosques, tombs, khanqahs, Madarsas and Maktabs.
  • Qazi-ul-Quzal:He was the head of judicial department and usually the post of the chief Sadr and the chief Qazi were combined in a single person.
  • Dabir-i-Khas or Amir Munshi:He was the head of the records department, which was called Diwan-I-Insha. The Farmans of the Sultan were issued from his department also while all high-level correspondence passed through his hands.
  • Barid-i-Mumalik:He was the head of the information and intelligence department. Dakchaukis or news outposts were also under his control.

Provinces were divided into Shias and were headed by a Shiqdar.
• The Shiqswere further divided into Parganas which comprised a number of villages and was headed by the Amil.
• Villages were the basic unit of administration and continued to enjoy a large measure of self government.
• The most important official of the village was the village headman called Muqaddam.
• Other important functionaries were Khats, Chaudharies, etc. Most of the towns had a Kotwal and Qazi.

ECONOMY

• After consolidating their position in India, the Delhi Sultans introduced reforms in the land revenue administration. The lands were classified into three categories:

• Iqta land –lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services.
  Khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues collected were spent for the maintenance of royal court and royal household.
  3. Inam land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions.

Iqta System

• The institution of the Iqta had been in force in early Islamic world as a form of reward for services to the state.
  In the caliphate administration it was used to pay civil and military officers.
  • After the establishment of the Sultanate iqta system was introduced by the Sultans.
  • The army commanders and nobles were given territories to administer and collect the revenue. The territories thus assigned were called iqta and their holders as iqtadar or muqti.
  • In essence this was a system of payment to the officers and maintenance of army by them.
  • Gradually rules and regulations were laid down to organize the whole system.
  • Through the years it became the main instrument of administrating the Sultanate.
  • Further the sultans could get a large share of the surplus production from different parts of the vast territories through this system.

PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

HISTORY NOTE (ENGLISH)

LECTURE – 9

TUGHLAQ TO LODI

1. The real name of GhyasuddinTughlaq was

a.  Ghazi Kafur

b.  Ghazi Malik

c.  Qaraunah Turk

d.  Zafar Khan

2. “Wisest fool” was known to which Tughlaq King?

a. Mohammad bin Tughlaq

b. Firoz shah Tughlaq

c. Ghyasudding Tughlaq

d. None of These

3. “Ill starred idealist” was known to which ruler?

1. Iltutmish
2. Mohammad bin Tughlaq
3. Alauddin Khalji
4. Kutubuddin Aibek

4. Tughlaqabad fort built by which Tughlaq ruler?

1. GhyasuddinTughlaq
2. Mohammad bin Tughlaq
3. Firoz Shah
4. Nadir Shah

5. Who was the founder of Sayyad Dynasty?

1. Khizr Khan
2. Mubarak Shah
3. Muhammad Shah
4. AlauddinAlam Shah

6. Who was the founder of Agra city?

1. Bahlol Lodhi,
2. Sikandar Lodhi,
3. Ibrahim Lodhi
4. Daulat khan lodi

7. Who Was the last ruler of the Lodi dynasty

1. BahlolLodhi,
2. SikandarLodhi,
3. Ibrahim Lodhi
4. Daulat khan lodi

8. Who invented the musical instrument called Sitar?

(A) Ablberuni
(B) HasanNizami
(C) Utbi
(D) Amirkhusru

9. Who was the father of Ibrahim Lodi

(A) Sikandar Lodi
(B) Alam Khan
(C) Nizam Khan
(D) Bahlul khan Lodi

10. Who annexed the jaunpur in lodi kingdom

1. BahlolLodhi,
2. SikandarLodhi,
3. Ibrahim Lodhi
4. Daulat khan lodi

PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

Lecture – 10

Mughal Empire

Mains examination question

 1. What were the Reasons for babur Indian expedition?

2. Write short notes on (75 words)

(a) ghalla-bakshi.,

(b) nasaq.

(c) polaj

(d) mansabdari system

PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

Lecture – 10

Mughal Umpire

Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur

• Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, descended from his father’s side in the 5th generation from Timur. and through his mother in the 15th generation from Chenghiz Khan.

Reasons for his Indian expedition.

• TheOttomans defeated the Safavids and the Uzbeks controlled Transoxiana forcing Babur’s imperial impulses towards India.
• Meagre income of Kabul
• Desire to emulate Timur
• Punjab was part of the Timurid province  and  hence was considered a legal partrimony of the Timurids
• Apprehension of Uzbek attacks.
• He was invited to attack India by  Daulat Khan Lodi, Subedar of Punjab; Ibrahim Lodi’s uncle Alamkhan Lodi and RanaSanga.
• He was successful in his 5th expedition.
• In the Battle of Panipat 20th April 1526.
• he finally defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. Babur was the first one to entitle himself as the ‘Padshah’
• Battle of Panipat (1526)- Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi
• Battle of Khanwa (1527)-  Babur defeated RanaSanga
• Battle of Chanderi(1528)- Babur defeated MediniRai
• He wrote “Tuzuk-i-Baburi” or Baburnama in Turkish.
• It was  translated into Persian by AbdurRaltim Khan  i- Khanan.
• Other works include a  “Masnavi” Significance     After the Kushans,  he  was the  first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the Indian empire, which provided stability since it was  the staging post of invasions of India. This helped in promoting trade since these towns  were the starting points of caravans meant for China in the east & Mediterranean  in the west.
• He smashed Lodi and Rajput power, destroying the  balance of power which paved the way for. an empire. New mode of warfare was intr
• Humayun was the second Mughal ruler of territories in the Indian subcontinent including what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of northern India
• . He became the Mughal emperor at the age of 23.
• He was inexperienced at the time of ascending to the throne and faced bitter rivalry from his half-brother Kamran Mirza who ruled over Kabul and Lahore
• .Even though Humayun was a brave soul and an adventurous ruler, he lost several territories to his rivals over the ensuing years.
• However, he was not someone to accept defeat so easily and he successfully won back his territories after a few years.

Childhood & Early Life

• Humayun was born on 17 March 1508, in Kabul, Mughal Empire (present-day Afghanistan), to Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty and his wife Maham Begum. He had several siblings; many of his brothers and half-brothers would become his bitter rivals in future.
• He received an upbringing typical for princes of his stature. He learned Turki, Arabic, and Persian and was interested in mathematics, philosophy, and astrology. He also received military training and was appointed governor of Badakhashan at the age of 20.
• He proved his bravery as a young governor and fought at Panipat and Khanwa, two decisive battles in Indian history. His father ensured that he was trained as an administrator and a warrior.

Accession & Reign

• Babur died and Humayun ascended to the throne on 26 December 1530 as the second emperor of the Mughal dynasty. He faced bitter rivalry from his brothers, and also faced threat from other rulers such as Sultan Bahadur and Sher Shah Suri (Sher Khan). His half-brother Kamran treacherously took the Punjab and the Indus Valley.
• During the initial years of his reign, both his major rivals extended their territories. Sultan Bahadur planned to attack Humayun’s territories, but Humayun acted quickly and went on to capture the forts of Mandu and Champaner, forcing Bahadur to take up refuge with the Portuguese. Bahadur eventually died in 1537.
• Meanwhile Sher Shah Suri was consolidating his power in Bihar and Bengal and was emerging as a powerful ruler. He challenged the Mughal rule and even though Humayun was able to temporarily oust Sher Shah from Bengal, he could not defend his territories from Sher Shah for long.
• Sher Shah successfully defeated the Mughals at Chausa in 1539 and over 8,000 Mughal troops were killed in the bloody battle. This considerably weakened Humayun’s strength, and to add to his miseries, his own brothers were also plotting against him. Sher Shah Suri continued his attacks on the Mughals and drove Humayun to the west.
• The Mughals faced the growing army of Sher Shah at the Battle of Kanauj in 1540 where once again the Mughals were defeated. Further defeats followed the Mughals and the emperor Humayun was compelled to quit the battlefield. Sher Shah also captured Agra, the capital city of the Mughals, and forced Humayun to flee from India.
• Humayun fled to Persia with his wife and a few companions. There Shah Tahmasp not only offered him refuge, but also treated him as a royal visitor. With military support from Shah Tahmasp, Humayun proceeded to claim Kandahar and Kabul.
• Meanwhile Sher Shah Suri died in 1545, and his son and successor also died within a few years of his father in 1554. The ensuing political chaos provided Humayun with the perfect opportunity to reclaim his empire. He gathered a large army which he placed under the leadership of Bairam Khan, a great military strategist. Bairam Khan led the army and successfully laid claim to the throne for the Mughals. Once again Humayun claimed Babur’s throne on 23 July 1555.
• After becoming the Mughal emperor once again, he embarked on a series of military campaigns to extend his reign over areas in eastern and western India. At the time of his death, the Mughal Empire spanned almost one million square kilometers.

Major Battles

• Humayun was not well known for being a great military leader. However, he recognized his limitations and therefore placed his army under the leadership of Bairam Khan while attempting to reclaim the throne of Delhi from the descendants of Sher Shah Suri. This proved to be a wise move as Bairam Khan was successful in recapturing the capital for Humayun.
• Humayun had several wives and concubines, the most notable ones being HamidaBanu Begum, MahChuchak Begum, BibiGunwar Begum, KhanishAghacha, ShahamAghacha, and Maywa Jan Aghacha. He fathered a number of children including son Akbar who would one day become known as one of the greatest Mughal emperors.
• He was descending the staircase from his library with his arms full of books when the muezzin announced the Azaan (the call to prayer). The emperor tried to kneel in reverence on hearing the summons, but tripped and fell down the stairs. He was seriously injured as a result and died three days later on 27 January 1556. He was succeeded by his son Akbar.
• Humayun was known for his peaceful personality and patience which earned him the title ’Insān-i-Kamil (Perfect Man), among the Mughals.

Sher Shah Suri

• Sher Shah Suri was the founder of the Sur Empire in North India. After taking control of the Mughal Empire in 1540,
• he set up a new civic and military administration and implemented several reforms in the financial and postal sectors. He reorganized the empire and revived the historical city of Pataliputra as Patna which had been in decline since the 7th century CE.
• Sher Shah Suri was born as Farid Khan in 1486 in Sasaram, Rohtas district, Bihar in India. His grandfather Ibrahim Khan Suri was a land lord (Jagirdar) in Narnaul area and his father Mian Hassan Khan Suri, was a horse breeder and a prominent figure in the government of Bahlul Khan Lodi. Farid had several brothers.
• Farid Khan grew up to be a brave young man and was given a village in Fargana, Delhi (comprising present day districts of Bhojpur, Buxar, Bhabhua of Bihar) by Omar Khan Sarwani, the counselor and courtier of Bahlul Khan Lodi.
• Farid often got into disputes with his father and ran away from home to independently seek his fortunes.

Later Years

• He then enlisted as a soldier in the service of Jamal Khan, the governor of Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh. Meanwhile his father died and he took possession of his paternal jagir.
• Farid Khan entered the service of Bahar Khan, the ruler of Bihar, in 1522. He quickly impressed Khan with his bravery and valor, and was appointed his deputy. He also became the tutor and mentor of Bahar Khan’s minor son.
• Once on a hunting trip Farid killed a full grown tiger with his bare hands, and earned the title of Sher Khan from Bahar Khan in recognition of his bravery.
• Sher Khan faced Humayun at the Battle of Chausa in June 1539. Sher Khan defeated the Mughal Emperor and assumed the royal title of Farid al-Din Sher Shah. The confrontations between Sher Shah and Humayun continued as Humayun retried to capture lost territories and the men faced each other again at Kannauj in May 1540.
• Sher Shah was once again successful in defeating Humayun who was forced to flee India. By 1540, Sher Shah had managed to drive out all his enemies from Bengal, Bihar, and the Punjab. He took control of the Mughal Empire and founded the Sur Empire in North India, with its capital at Delhi. He then went on to conquer Malwa in 1542; Raisin, Multan and Sindh in 1543; and Marwar and Mewar in 1544.
• Sher Shah Suri was not only a courageous warrior, but also an able administrator. He introduced several reforms and reorganized the civil and administrative structures. He is also credited to have introduced the tri-metal coinage system which later came to characterize the Mughal coinage system.
• He undertook notable architectural works during his reign and built structures like Rohtas Fort, Sher Shah Suri Masjid, and Qila-i-Kuhna mosque. He also built a new city Bhera of Pakistan in 1545.

Major Battles

• One of the most famous battles fought by Sher Shah Suri was the Battle of Chausa in which his forces defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun’s army in 1539. Sher Shah’s victory in the battle marked the beginning of the downfall of Humayun’s reign and laid the foundation for Suri to establish the foundation of the Sur Empire in North India.

Major Works

• Sher Shah Suri rebuilt the Grand Trunk road, which existed during the Maurya Empire, extending from the mouth of the Ganges to the north-western frontier of the Empire. The purpose behind building the road was to link together the remote provinces of his vast empire for administrative and military reasons.
• He also built several monuments including Rohtas Fort, Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna, and Qila-i-Kuhna mosque at PuranaQila, Delhi
• Sher Shah Sur married Lad Malika, widow of Taj Khan, governor of Chunar. This marriage helped him greatly in consolidating his powers as a powerful ruler as it gave him the possession of the Fort of Chunar.
• He remained a brave and ambitious warrior till the very end. Sher Shah Suri was killed in a freak accident during the siege of Kalinjar fort on 13 May 1545. He was succeeded by his son, Jalal Khan who took the title of Islam Shah Suri. His successors, however, proved to be weak rulers and the Mughals were able to re-establish their rule in India after a few years.

Akbar, the great

• In 1542, Akbar, the greatest of the Mughal rulers, was born at Amarkot.
• When Humayun fled to Iran, Kamran (brother of Humayun) captured young Akbar. Kamran treated the child well; however, Akbar was re-united with his parents after the capture of Qandhar.
• When Humayun died, Akbar was in Punjab, commanding operations against the Afghan rebels.
• In 1556, Akbar was crowned at Kalanaurat the age of merely thirteen years and four months.
• When Akbar succeeded, the Afghans were still strong beyond Agra, and were reorganizing their forces under the leadership of Hemu.
• Kabul had been attacked and besieged. Sikandar Sur, the defeated Afghan ruler, was forced to loiter in the Siwalik Hills.
• Bairam Khan, the tutor of the prince Akbar and a loyal and favorite officer of Humayun, became the wakil(advocate) of the kingdom and received the title of ‘i.khanan;’ . He united the Mughal forces.
• The threat from Hemu was considered the most serious for Akbar. Further, the area from Chunar to the border of Bengal was under the domination of Adil Shah, a nephew of Sher Shah.
• During Islam Shah’s reign, Hemu had started his career as a superintendent of the market, but soon promoted under Adil Shah. Surprisingly, Hemu had not lost a single one of the twenty-two battles in which he had fought.
• Adil Shah had appointed Hemu as wazir, gave the title of ‘Vikramajit,’ and entrusted him with the task to expel the Mughals.

Second Battle of  Panipat

• Hemu first seized Agra, and with an army of 50,000 cavalry, 500 elephants and a strong park of artillery marched towards Delhi.
• In a well-contested battle, Hemu defeated the Mughals near Delhi and captured the city. But Bairam Khan took an energetic and smart step to meet the critical situation. Bairam Khan strengthened his army marched towards Delhi before Hemu could have time to consolidate his position again.
• On 5 November, 1556, the battle between the Mughals (led by Bairam Khan) and the Afghan forces (led by Hemu), took place once again at Panipat.
• Though Hemu’s artillery had been captured by a Mughal force, the tide of battle was in favor of Hemu. Meanwhile, an arrow hit in the eye of Hemu and he fainted. Hemu was arrested and executed. Akbar had virtually reconquered his empire.
• Since Akbar held the throne at his teen age; he had been supported by a group of nobles.

Bairam Khan’s Conquest

• Bairam Khan remained at the helm of affairs of the Mughal Empire for almost next four years and during this period, he kept the nobility fully under control.
• The territories of the Mughal Empire were extended from Kabul (in the north) to Jaunpur (in the east) and Ajmer (in the west).
• Mughal forces captured Gwalior and vigorous efforts were made to conquer Ranthambhor and Malwa.
• Bairam Khan chose to retire to Mecca. On his way to Mecca, he was assassinated at Patan near Ahmadabad by an Afghan who bore him a personal grudge.
• Bairam Khan’s wife and a young child were brought to Akbar at Agra. Akbar married Bairam Khan’s widow (who was also his cousin), and brought up the child as his own son.
• Bairam Khan’s child later became popular as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khananand held some of the most significant offices and commands in the Mughal Empire.
• During Bairam Khan’s rebellion, some groups and individuals in the nobility became politically active. The group included Akbar’s foster-mother, MahamAnaga, and her relatives. However, MahamAnaga soon withdrew from politics.
• MahamAnaga’s son, Adham Khan, was an impetuous young man. He assumed independent airs when he had been sent to command an expedition against Malwa. He claimed the post of the wazir, and when this was not accepted, he stabbed the acting wazirin his office. His tyrannical act enraged Akbar. In 1561, Adham Khan had been thrown down from the parapet of the fort and he died.
• Much before Akbar’s maturity and establishing his full authority, the Uzbeks formed a powerful group. They held important positions in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Malwa.

Kingdom of Malwa

• During Akbar’s initial period, Malwa was being ruled by a young prince, BazBahadur. BazBahadur’s accomplishments were a mastery of music and poetry. Besides, the romantic story of BazBahadur and Rani Rupmati is also very famous. Rani Rupmati is known in history because of her beauty.
• Because of BazBahadur’s interest in music and poetry, Mandu (BazBahadur’s capital) had become a celebrated center for music. The army, however, had been neglected by BazBahadur.
• In March 1561, the expedition against Malwa was led by Adham Khan, son of Akbar’s foster-mother, MahamAnaga. BazBahadur was badly defeated (in the battle of Sarangpur) and the Mughals took valuable assets, including Rupmati. However, she refused to go with Adham Khan and preferred to commit suicide.
• After defeating Malwa, Adham Khan ruled with cruelties, because of this, there was a reaction against the Mughals, which supported BazBahadur to recover Malwa.
• In 1562, Akbar sent another expedition to Malwa (led by Abdullah Khan). BazBahadur defeated again and he had to flee west. He took shelter with the Rana of Mewar.
• After wandering about from one area to another, BazBahadur, finally approached to Akbar’s court and was enrolled as a Mughal mansabdar. Likewise, the extensive territory of Malwa came under Mughal rule.

v  Kingdom of Garh-Katanga

• In 1564, Mughal arms (led by Asaf Khan) overran the kingdom of Garh-Katanga. The kingdom of Garh-Katanga included the Narmada valley and the northern portions of present Madhya Pradesh.
• The kingdom of Garh-Katanga consisted of a number of Gond and Rajput principalities.
• In 1542, Aman Das (also known as Sangram Shah), ruler of Garh-Katanga married his eldest son Dalpati Shah with Rani Durgawati (daughter of famous Rajput Chandel Emperor KeeratRai of Mahoba) and strengthened his position.
• Dalpati Shah died soon after his marriage and the princess Durgavati became a widow. But she made her minor son king and ruled with great courage.
• Princess Durgavati was a good markswoman with both guns and bow & arrow. She fought many successful battles against her neighbors, including BazBahadur of Malwa.
• Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Allahabad moved towards Garh-Katanga with 10,000 cavalries. Some of the semi-independent rulers of Garha-Katanga found it an opportune moment to throw off the Gond supremacy.
• The Rani Durgavati was not supported by her nobles rather left with a small force. She fought bravely but defeated. Once finding that she lost the battle and was in danger of being captured, she stabbed herself to death.
• Over a period of time, Asaf Khan also became despotic; however, when Akbar had dealt with the rebellion of the Uzbek nobles, he forced Asaf Khan to expel his illegal games.
• Akbar restored the kingdom of Garh-Katanga to Chandra Shah, the younger son of Sangram Shah and took ten forts to round off the kingdom of Malwa.

Gujarat Expedition

• In 1572, after defeating Rajputs (namely Chittoor, Ranthambhor, Jodhpur, etc.), Akbar advanced towards Ahmadabad viaAjmer; however, Ahmadabad surrendered without a fight.
• After Rajasthan expedition, Akbar turned his attention towards the Mirzas who held Broach, Baroda, and Surat (regions of Gujarat).
• During the Gujarat expedition, Akbar saw the sea for the first time at Cambay, he rode on it in a boat.
• In 1573, when Akbar returned back, after defeating Gujarat, a fresh rebel broke out all over Gujarat. Immediately after hearing the news, Akbar moved out of Agra and traversed across Rajasthan in merely nine days.
• On the eleventh day, Akbar reached Ahmadabad. In this journey, which normally took six weeks, only 3,000 soldiers were accompanied with Akbar. But with only 3,000 soldiers, Akbar overcame the 20,000 rebellions.
• In 1576, Akbar defeated Daud Khan (the Afghan ruler) in Bihar and executed him on the spot. Likewise, ended the last Afghan kingdom from northern India.

Akbar administration

• Though Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s administrative system, he did not find it that much beneficial hence he had started his own administrative system.
• In 1573, just after returning from Gujarat expedition, Akbar paid personal attention to the land revenue system. Officials called as ‘karoris’ were appointed throughout the north India. Karoriswere responsible for the collection of a crore of dams (i.e. Rs. 250,000).
• In 1580, Akbar instituted a new system called the dahsala; under this system, the average produce of different crops along with the average prices prevailing over the last ten (dah) years were calculated. However, the state demand was stated in cash. This was done by converting the state share into money on the basis of a schedule of average prices over the past ten years.
• Akbar introduced a new land measurement system (known as the zabtisystem) covering from Lahore to Allahabad, including Malwa and Gujarat.
• Under the zabtisystem, the shown area was measured by means of the bamboos attached with iron rings.
• The zabtisystem, originally, is associated with Raja Todar Mal (one of the nobles of Akbar), therefore, sometimes, it is called as TodarMal’sbandobast.
• Todar Mal was a brilliant revenue officer of his time. He first served on Sher Shah’s court, but later joined Akbar.
• Besides zabtisystem, a number of other systems of assessment were also introduced by Akbar. The most common and, perhaps the oldest one was ‘batai’ or ‘ghalla-bakshi.’
• Under bataisystem, the produce was divided between the peasants and the state in a fixed proportion.
• The peasants were allowed to choose between zabtiand batai under certain conditions. However, such a choice was given when the crops had been ruined by natural calamity.
• Under bataisystem, the peasants were given the choice of paying in cash or in kind, though the state preferred cash.
• In the case of crops such as cotton, indigo, oil-seeds, sugarcane, etc., the state demand was customarily in cash. Therefore, these crops were called as cash-crops.
• The third type of system, which was widely used (particularly in Bengal) in Akbar’s time was nasaq.
• Most likely (but not confirmed), under the nasaqsystem, a rough calculation was made on the basis of the past revenue receipts paid by the peasants. This system required no actual measurement, however, the area was ascertained from the records.
• The land which remained under cultivation almost every year was called ‘polaj.’
• When the land left uncultivated, it was called ‘parati’ (fallow). Cess on Paratiland was at the full (polaj) rate when it was cultivated.
• The land which had been fallow for two to three years was called ‘chachar,’ and if longer than that, it was known as ‘banjar.’
• The land was also classified as good, middling, and bad. Though one-third of the average produce was the state demand, it varied according to the productivity of the land, the method of assessment, etc.
• Akbar was deeply interested in the development and extension of cultivation; therefore, he offered taccavi(loans) to the peasants for seeds, equipment, animals, etc. Akbar made policy to recover the loans in easy installments.

v  Army

• Akbar organized and strengthened his army and encouraged the mansabdari “Mansab” is an Arabic word, which means ‘rank’ or ‘position.’
• Under the mansabdarisystem, every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). The lowest rank was 10, and the highest was 5,000 for the nobles; however, towards the end of the reign, it was raised to 7,000. Princes of the blood received higher mansabs.
• The mansabs(ranks) were categorized as −
  • Zat
  • Sawar
• The word ‘zat’ means personal. It fixed the personal status of a person, and also his salary.
• The ‘sawar’ rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawars) a person was required to maintain.
• Out of his personal pay, the mansabdarwas expected to maintain a corps of elephants, camels, mules, and carts, which were necessary for the transport of the army.
• The Mughal mansabdarswere paid very handsomely; in fact, their salaries were probably the highest in the world at the time.
• A mansabdar, holding the rank of −
  • 100 zat, received a monthly salary of Rs. 500/month;
  • 1,000 zatreceived Rs. 4,400/month;
  • 5,000 zatreceived Rs. 30,000/month.
• During the Mughal period, there was as such no income tax.
• Apart from cavalrymen, bowmen, musketeers (bandukchi), sappers, and miners were also recruited in the contingents.

v  Relation with Mewar State

• Mewarwas the only state which had stubbornly refused to accept Mughal suzerainty.
• In 1572, RanaPratapsucceeded RanaUdai Singh to the ‘gaddi‘ (throne) of Chittoor. Akbar sent a series of embassies to RanaPratap asking to accept Mughal suzerainty and to do personal homage. All these embassies, including the one led by Man Singh, were courteously received by RanaPratap. In return, RanaPratap also sent Amar Singh (his son) with Bhagwan Das to do homage to Akbar and accept his service. But Rana never accepted or made any final agreement.
• In 1576, Akbar went Ajmer, and deputed Raja Man Singh with a force of 5,000 to lead a campaign against Rana. In anticipation of this campaign, Rana had devastated the entire territory up to Chittoor so that the Mughal forces might get no food or fodder and fortified all the passes in the hills.
• The battle between RanaPratap and Mughal force (led by Man Singh) was fought at Haldighatiin June 1576.
• The powerful attack by the Rajputs, which was supported by the Afghans threw the Mughal force into disarray. However, because of the fresh reinforcements in Mughal’s forces, the tide of battle turned against the Rajputs. The Mughal forces were advanced through the pass and occupied Gogunda, a strong point which had been evacuated by the Rana earlier. RanaPratap somehow managed to escape from the battle field.
• The battle of Haldighati was the last battle that Rana engaged in a pitched battle with the Mughals; afterward, he relied upon the methods of guerilla warfare.
• In 1585, Akbar moved to Lahore to observe the situation in the north-west which had become dangerous by that time. Because of the critical situation, he (Akbar) remained there for the next 12 years. Therefore, after 1585, no Mughal expedition was sent against RanaPratap.
• Akbar’s absence gave an opportunity to RanaPratap and hence, he recovered many of his territories, including Kumbhalgarh and the areas nearby Chittoor. RanaPratap built a new capital, namely Chavand, near modern Dungarpur.
• In 1597, Rana Pratap died at the age of 51, due to an internal injury incurred (by himself) while trying to draw a stiff bow.
• Akbar’s deccan campaign began with  the siege  of Ahmednagar {defended by Chand Bibi). Ahmednagarsoon  resurrected itself under  the leadership of Malik Amber.
• Akbar’s last campaign  was against Asirgarh, resulting in the annexation of Khandesh ( 1601). Akbar conquered Kandahar in 1595.
• Bharmal of Amber, followed by Jaiselmer  and Bikaner established  marital relationships with Akbar.
• Bhagwan Das (5000/at) and Man Singh  (7000 zat) enjoyed a privileged position in the Mughal court.
• Akbar faced a rebellion in Gujarat in 1572. which was crushed and  following  which he built  the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri. Organization

Akbar’s Religious Policies

• He abolished Jaziya and pilgrimage tax and  forcible conversion of prisoners of war.
• He built an  IbadatKhana at FatehpurSikri to discuss religious matters.
• He invited many distinguished persons To  curb  the dominance of Ulema.
• Akbar introduced a new Khutba. written by  Faizi and proclaimed Mahzarnama in 1579. which made him the final interpreter of Islamic law (Mujtahid Imam-i-Adil) in case of an controversies.  It made him Amir ulMomin (leader of the faithful) and Amir-i-Adil (a just ruler).
• His liberalism is reflected again in the pronouncement of Tauhid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-llahi. which propounded Sufi divine
• Tenets of Din-i-llahi (1582) It could be adopted on Sunday by  performing paibos (The emperor placed  his feel on the head of the initiated).
• following which Akbar gave Shat (formula) The initiated had to express greeting in the form of Allah-o-Akbar and Jalle-Jalalhu a He had to  abstain from meat and give alms. there were no scriptures and priests.
  • Akbar’s CourtTodar Mai, AbulFazl, Faizi, Birbal, Tansen, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Mullah do Pyaza and Man Singh were gems of his court.
• Akbar established the painting Karkhana, headed by
• Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first Englishman to visit Akbar’s’Court.

AbulFazl  wroteAkbarnama,  the appendix of which  was called Ain-i-Akbari. This section deals with the laws and revenue system.

PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

Lecture – 10

Mughal Umpire

Preliminary question

Q 1 – Consider the following statements:

1. During the period between 1560 and 1562, Akbar’s administration was under the influence of MahamAnga and Adham Khan.
2. In 1560, Akbar terminated the Bairam Khan’s regency.

Choose the correct answer from the codes given below:

(A) Only 1

(B) Only 2

(C) Both

(D) Neither 1 nor 2

 2.– Who among the following had founded the Sangama Dynasty?

A – Harihar and Bukka

B – SaluvaNarsimha

C – Veer Narsimha

D – Tirumala

Q 3.– Who among the following had translated Baburnama into Persian language?

A – Babur

B – Humayun

C – Abdur Rahim Khan i-Khanan

D – a & c both together

Q 4. – In which year, Akbar abolished the Jaziya?

A – 1574

B – 1564

C – 1571

D – 1562

Q 5. – Who among the following invited Babar to invade India and defeat Ibrahim Lodhi?

A -SikandarLodhi

B – Daulat Khan Lodhi

C – BahlulLodhi

D – Mubarak Lodhi

Q 6.– Consider the following statements:

1. During the period between 1560 and 1562, Akbar’s administration was under the influence of MahamAnga and Adham Khan.
2. In 1560, Akbar terminated the Bairam Khan’s regency.

Choose the correct answer from the codes given below:

A – Only 1

B – Only 2

C – Both

D – Neither 1 nor 2

7. Which of the following about the duties of the Dewan in the time of Akbar is correct?

A. He posted news-writers and spices in different provinces.

B. He recommended the appointment of provincial dewans and guided and controlled them

C. All orders of appointment to Mansabs of all ranks passed through his office

D. He gave authoritative ruling ion conflicting interpretations of Shara

8. Din-a-Ilahi was introduced by Akbar in—

(A) 1575A.D.

(B) 1579A.D.

(C) 1582A.D.

(D) 1585AD.

9. The range of the mansabs as organized by Akbar was —

(A) 100 to 5000

(B) 10 to 5000

(C) l0 to 10000

(D) l0 to 6000

10. The Humayun tomb got constructed by—

(A) Humayun

(B) Akbar

(C) His widow

(D) None of these

11. Akbar discontinued the debates in the Ibadat Khana in—

(A) 1580

(B) 1582

(C) 1581

(D) 1583

Mains examination

1. write short notes on (75 words)
2. discuss the heights of painting arts in Jahangir era?

• mansabdari
• system,Sarkar
•  taccavi
• ,daswant

PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

Lecture 11 (English Medium)

Jahangir-aurangzeb

Jahangir (1605-27)

His wife,  Nurjahan (daughter of Itimad-daulah) exercised tremendous influence  over the state affairs. She was made the official Padshah Begum.

• Jahangir banned slaughter of animals on Sunday and
• he established Zanjir-i-Adal at Agra Fort for the seekers of royal justice.
• Jahangir also married Jodha Bai of Marwar, and a Kachchwaha princes.
• His son Khusrau, who received patronage of Guru Arjun Dev, revolted against The fifth Sikh Guru Arjun Dev was later sentenced to death for his blessings to the rebel prince.
• Khurram (Shahjahan) supported by his father-in-law, Asaf Khan, also revolted against Jahangir but the two soon reconciled.
• His military general, Mahabat Khan revolted and abducted him but Nurjahan saved him due to her diplomatic efforts. H
• e was well read and wrote his memoirs Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian.
• the refusal to pay the fine, Guru Arjun’s son, Hargovind was imprisoned in the fort of Gwalior.
• Jahangir faced a formidable opponent in Malik Amber (an Abyssinian) in his expedition to Ahmednagar.
• Shahjahan’s military capacity was proved during the expeditions undertaken during Jahangir’s reign and Ahmednagar was annexed (1601).
• John Hawkins resided  at Agra for two years (1609-11). He was given the mansab of 400.

• Sir Thomas Roe (1615-18) was ambassador of James I.

• Shahjahan (1628-58) In 1612 he married Arzmand Banu Begum who became famous as Mumtaz Mahal

• In 1632, he defeated Potugese and annexed Ahmednager in 1636

• Shahjahan’s reign is described by French traveller Bernier and Tavernier and the Italian traveller Manucci.

• Peter Mundi described the famine that occured during Shah Jahan’s time.

• Shahjahan succeeded to the throne on the death of Jahangir in The first thing that he had to face was revolts  in Bundelkhand (Jujjhar Singh Bundela of Orchcha) and the Deccan (Khan-i-Jahan  Lodi, the governor of Deccan).the sent his armies  to Balkh and Badakshan in Central Asia in order to secure the defence of northwestern India. Shah Jahan who had recovered Kandahar (1638) from  the Iranians but  lost it again (1649) despite three campaigns under Prince Murad, Aurangzeb and Dara.

• The War of succession took a notorious turn during Shahjahan’s reign and his two daughters Jahan Ara and  Roshan Ara supported his  two sons.  Dara and Aurangzeb, respectively.

Aurangzeb  (1658-1707)

• He defeated Dara (1659).
• He took the title of ‘Alamgir’ in 1659.  He was called as Zinda Pir, the living saint.
• In 1662, Mir Jumla, Aurangzeb’s ablest general led the expedition against Ahoms.  He forbade inscription of Kalma on the
• he ended the  celebration  of Navroz festival.
• Muhtasib (regulator of moral conduct) were appointed.  He forbade music in the court.
• He ended Jarokha darshan, use of almanacs and weighing of the emperor.
• Aurenzeb compiled  Fatwa-i-Alamgri.  Jaziya was re-introduced. However,  the Hindu mansabdars  maintained their high proportion during his   The  Mughal conquests reached a climax  during his reign, as  Bijapur and Golconda were annexed in 1686  and  1687, respectively.

• Revolts under Aurangzeb
• Aurangzeb’s failure  to understand the  root causes and nature  of  the rise  of Marathas, gave him a formidable opponent, Shivaji.
• The first anti- imperial reaction took place in the form of Jai \ Rebellion  under  Rajaram and Chinaman  Satnamis.
• First Afghan rebellon was by  Yusufshahi  tribes of Afghanistan of  Roshnai sect.
• Second Afghan rebellion led by Ajmal Khan.
• During his reign, ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed.

Mughal State  and Architecture Babar

• Babar’s built two mosques one at Kabulibagh  in Panipat and the other at Sambhal in Rohilkhand.
• Humayun laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi.
• Humayun’s tomb is called the proto type of Taj Mahal. It has a double dome of marble, while the central dome is octagonal.
• It was built by his widow Haji Begum. The  garden and  the gateway are to be found in all Mughal-style tombs.

• Building’s built by Akbar are Agra Fort (1565), Lahore Palace (1572), Fatehpur Sikri’, Buland Darwaza and Allahabad Fort (1583).
• The architecture at Fatehpur Sikri is an excellent blending of Persian, Central Asian and various Indian (Bengal and Gujarat) styles .
• It is also known as Epic poem in red sandstone. Indian tradition includes deep eaves, balconies and Kiosks. Central  Asian Style is evident in the use of glazed blue tiles.
• Two unusual buildings at  Fatehpur Sikri are
• Panch Mahal & Diwan-i-Khas
• The Panch Mahal has the plan of Buddhist
• The Jodhabai’s Palace, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas are Indian in their plan.
• Buland Darwaja (built after Gujarat victory),  formed the main entrance to Fatehpur Sikri. It  is  built in  the Iranian style of half dome portal.
• Salim Chisti’s tomb (redone in Marble by Jahangir is the first Mughal  building in Pure marble), palaces of Birbal, Anup Talao, Mariyam Mahal are also inside the Fatehpur Sikri.
• He built the Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort according to Hindu design based on  Man Mandir.  Haroon Minor—Tower built by Akbar in memory of his elephant (Haroon).
• He also began to build his own tomb at Sikandara which, was later completed by Jahangir.

Jahangir

• The style of architecture used by both Jahangir and Shahjahan is known as Indo Persian.
• Important features of this style are Curved lines, Bulbous dome, foliated arches vigorous use of marble instead of red sand stone and use of pietre dura for decorative purposes.
• Nurjahan built Itimad-ud-Daula’s (another name of Mirza Ghiyas Beg) marble tomb at Agra, which is noticeable for the first use of pietra dura (floral designs made up of semiprecious  stones)
• He built Moti Masjid in Lcdwre and his own mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore).
• He also changed the plan of Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara. It is an unusual tomb as it is not surmounted by a dome and built on the model of a Buddhist Pagoda.

Shahajahan

• Mosque building activity reached its climax in Taj Mahal.  He also built the Jama Masjid (sand stone).
• Some of the important building built by Shahajahan at agra are Moti Masjid (pniy mosque of marble) in Agra, Khaas Mahal,  Musamman Bun (Jasmine Palace where he spent his last years  in captivity ) and Sheesh Mahal with mosaic glasses on walls  and ceilings.
• Many stone  buildings were destroyed by him and replaced by marble.
• He laid the foundations of Shahjahanabad in 1637 where he built the Red Fort and Taqt-i-taus (Peacock throne).
• Most richly ornamented building in Red Fort was the Diwan-i-Khas or Rang Mahal
• He laid the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore.
• Shahjahan built Nahar-i-Fuiz.

Aurangzeb

• Only building built by Aurangzeb in the Red Fort is Moti Masjid.
• Only monument associated with Aurangzeb is Bibi ka Makbara which is the tomb of his wife Rabbia-ud-daura in
• He also built the Badshahi mosque in Lahore.

Mughal Painting

• The Mughals introduced new themes depicting the conn, battle scenes and the chase and added new colours (Peacock blue and Indian red).
• Humayun had taken into his service two master painters Mir Syed Ali and Abdus Samad.
• Jaswant and Dasawan were two famous painters of Akbar’s court.
• Apart from illustrating  Persian  books  of  fables (Hamzanama),  the  painters  illustrated  Razamnama (Mahabharta) and Akbaranama.
• Jahangir claims that he could distinguish (The work of each artist in a
• Under Akbar, European painting was introduced at the court by the Portuguese priests.

The Maratha

The Maratha ruler Shahji Bhonsle and his son, Shivaji, consolidated the Maratha kingdom. Shahji acted as the kingmaker in Ahmednagar, and defied the Mughals.

Early Career of Shivaji

• Shahji had left the Poona jagirto his neglected senior wife, Jija Bai and his minor son, Shivaji.
• In 1647, after the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadeo, Shivaji became his own master and the full control of his father’s jagircame under his control.
• In 1656, Shivaji conquered Javli from the Maratha chief, Chandra Rao More and started his reigning career.
• In 1657, the Mughal invasion of Bijapur saved Shivaji from Bijapur reprisal. Shivaji first entered into negotiations with Aurangzeb and asked him for the grant of all the Bijapuri territories he held and other areas including the port of Dabhol in the Konkan. Later Shivaji betrayed and changed his side.
• Shivaji resumed-his career of conquest at the expense of Bijapur. He burst into the Konkan, the coastal strip between the Western Ghats and the sea, and seized the northern part of it.
• The ruler of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan (one of the premier nobles) along with 10,000 troops. Afzal Khan had been given instructions to capture Shivaji by any possible means.
• In 1659, Afzal Khan sent an invitation to Shivaji for a personal interview, promising to get him pardoned from the Bijapuri court. Convinced that this was a trap, Shivaji went with full preparation, and murdered Afzal Khan. Shivaji captured all Afzal Khan’s property, including equipment and artillery.
• Shivaji soon became a legendary figure. His name passed from house to house and he was credited with magical powers. People flocked to him from the Maratha areas to join his army, and even Afghan mercenaries who had been previously in the service of Bijapur, joined his army.
• Aurangzeb was anxious because of the rising of the Maratha power near to the Mughal frontiers. Poona and adjacent areas, which had been parts of the Ahmednagar kingdom had been transferred to Bijapur by the treaty of 1636. However, these areas were now again claimed by the Mughals.
• Aurangzeb instructed Shaista Khan, the new Mughal governor of the Deccan (he was also related to Aurangzeb by marriage), to invade Shivaji’s dominions and Adil Shah, the ruler of Bijapur, was asked to cooperate.
• Adil Shah sent Sidi Jauhar, the Abyssinian chief, who, invested Shivaji in Panhala. Getting trapped, Shivaji escaped and Panhala came under the control of the Bijapuri forces.
• Adil Shah took no further interest in the war against Shivaji, and soon came to a secret understanding with him. This agreement freed Shivaji to deal with the Mughals.
• In 1660, Shaista Khan occupied Poona and made it his headquarters. He then sent detachments to seize control of the Konkan from Shivaji.
• Despite harassing attacks from Shivaji, and the bravery of Maratha defenders, the Mughals secured their control on north Konkan.
• In 1663, on one night, Shivaji infiltrated into the camp and attacked on Shaista Khan, when he was in his harem (in Poona). He killed his son and one of his captains and wounded Khan. This daring attack of Shivaji put Khan into disgrace. In anger, Aurangzeb transferred Shaista Khan to Bengal, even refused to give him an interview at the time of transfer as was the custom.
• In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, which was the premier Mughal port, and looted it to his heart’s content.

Treaty of Purandar

• After the failure of Shaista Khan, Aurangzeb deputed Raja Jai Singh of Amber, who was one of the most trusted advisers of Aurangzeb, to deal with Shivaji.
• Unlike Shaista Khan, Jai Singh did not underestimate the Marathas rather he made careful diplomatic and military preparations.
• Jai Singh planned to strike at the heart of Shivaji’s territories i.e. fort Purandarwhere Shivaji had lodged his family and his treasure.
• In 1665, Jai Singh besieged Purandar (1665), beating off all Maratha attempts to relieve it. With the fall of the fort at sight, and no relief likely from any quarter, Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh.
• After hard bargaining with Shivaji, the following terms we agreed upon −
  • Out of 35 forts held by Shivaji, 23 forts were surrendered to the Mughals;
  • Remaining 12 forts were left with Shivaji on condition of service and loyalty to the Mughal throne;
  • Territory worth four lakhs of hunsa year in the Bijapuri Konkan, which Shivaji had already held, was granted to him.
  • The Bijapur territory worth of five lakhs of hunsa year in the uplands (Balaghat), which Shivaji had conquered, was also granted to him. In return for these, Shivaji was to pay 40 lakhs huns in instalments to the Mughals.
  • Shivaji asked them to be excused from personal service. Hence, a mansabof 5,000 was granted to his minor son, Sambhaji.
  • Shivaji promised, however, to join personally in any Mughal campaign in the Deccan.

Shivaji administration

In theory, Shivaji was an autocrat, like his contemporaries. He could do what he pleased. However he was assisted by a Council of 8 ministers known as the Ashta Pradhan. It is absolutely misleading to say that Ashta Pradhan was like a modern cabinet. Its functions were purely advisory. The eight ministers were the following:

• The Peshwa or Prime Minister whose duty was to look after the general welfare and interests of the state.
• The Amatya or Finance Minister whose duty was to check and countersign all public accounts of the Kingdom in general and the particular districts.
• The Mantri or Chronicler whose duty was to keep a diary of the daily doings of the King and also record everything that happened at the court. He was also called Wakia-Nawis.
• Summant or Dabir or Foreign Secretary whose duty was to advise the King on matters relating to foreign states and all questions of war and peace. He was also to see foreign Ambassadors and envoys and keep touch with the state of affairs in other states.
• Sachiv or Shuru Nawis or Home Secretary whose duty was to look after the correspondence of the King, He was to see that ail royal ietters and dispatches were drafted in the proper style. He had the authority to revise them. He also checked the account of the Parganas.
• Pandit Rao or Danadhyaksha or Sadar and Muhtasib or Ecclesiastical Head whose duty was to fix dates for religious ceremonies, punish hearsay and distribute among the Brahmins the charity of the King. He was the judge of canon law and censor of public morals.
• Nyayadhish or Chief Justice who was responsible for civil and military justice.
• Senapati or Sari Naubat or Commander-in-Chief who was in charge of the recruitment, organisation and discipline of the Army. He arranged disposition of the troops in the battlefield.

PAHUJA LAW ACADEMY

Lecture 11 (English Medium)

Jahangir-aurangzeb

Pre exam question

1.  Who was “ Chin Qilich Khan”?

(A) He was a general of Babur

(B) He was a provincial governor under Aurangazeb

(C) He was the first independent Nawab of Bengal

(D) He was the governor of Mughal Deccan Area

2. Which of the following about the duties of the Dewan in the time of Akbar is correct?

(A) He posted news-writers and spices in different provinces.

(B) He recommended the appointment of provincial dewans and guided and controlled them

(C) All orders of appointment to Mansabs of all ranks passed through his office

(D) He gave authoritative ruling ion conflicting interpretations of Shara

3. Who said “Those men who have strong dislike for paintings, I have strong dislike for

them”?

(A) Akbar

(B) Babar

(C) Jahangir

(D) Shah Jahan

4. The Humayun tomb got constructed by—

(A) Humayun

(B) Akbar

(C) His widow

(D) None of these

5. Who was the Mughal Emperor at the time of Nadir Shah’s attack?

(A) Rafi-ud-darjat

(B) Muhammad Shah

(C) Ahmad Shah

(D) Alamgir II

6. Who built Jama Masjid at Delhi?

(A) Akbar

(B) Shah Jahan

(C) Nur Jahan

(D) Aurangzeb

7. What according to Jadunath Sarkar was the reason of the downfall of Aurangzeb?

(A) Religious policy

(B) Military helpness

(C) Rajput policy

(D) Shivaji

8. Who was famous for laying many gardens?

(A) Babur

(B) Humayun

(C) Akbar

(D) Jahangir

9. ‘Fatwa-i-Alamgiri’ is a book on—

(A) Digest of Muslim Law under Aurangzeb’s supervision

(B) Religious decrees of Aurangzeb

(C) Aurangzeb‘s autobiography

(D) Law decrees of Aurangzeb

10. Who among the following was the author of Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri?

(A) Emperor Jahangir

(B) Muhammad Hadi

(C) Muhamid Khan

(D) None of these

11. Which were the two kingdoms conquerred by Akbar?

(A) Khandesh and Bijapur

(B) Bijapur and Ahmednagar

(C) Ahmednagar

(D) Berar and Ahmednagar